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Geography

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Home/Geography/Page 4

Mains Answer Writing Latest Questions

Ritu tyagi
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Ritu tyagiLearner
Asked: June 17, 2024In:
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List the elements that led to the jute industry’s establishment in India. Talk about the difficulties the sector is facing as well.(Answer in 200 words)

upsc: factors responsible for location of industry
  1. Tanu Singh
    Tanu Singh Learner

    Answer: India is the world's biggest producer of jute, followed by Bangladesh. Jute is primarily grown in West Bengal, Odisha, Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, and Andhra Pradesh. Factors responsible for the location of the jute industry in India: Raw material: These industries are located in close proximRead more

    Answer: India is the world’s biggest producer of jute, followed by Bangladesh. Jute is primarily grown in West Bengal, Odisha, Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, and Andhra Pradesh. Factors responsible for the location of the jute industry in India:

    • Raw material: These industries are located in close proximity to the jute-producing areas. For instance, in West Bengal, the jute mills are located along the banks of the Hugli River.
    • Means of transportation: Inexpensive water transport, supported by a good network of railways, roadways, and waterways facilitate the movement of raw materials to the mills.
    • Water requirement: The availability of abundant water facilitates the processing of raw jute. For example, the Hugli River supplies the adequate water for jute mills in West Bengal.
    • Labor: Cheap labor from West Bengal and adjoining states of Bihar, Odisha, and Uttar Pradesh make this region attractive for industries.
    • Other factors: A large urban center providing banking, insurance, and port facilities for the export of jute goods, for example, Kolkata.

    Challenges faced by the industry:

    • Fragmentation: The Indian Jute industry is highly fragmented and is dominated by the unorganized sector and small and medium industries.
    • Increasing input costs: Unpredictable market conditions, weather, policies, etc. have resulted in a supply shortage of raw materials and an increase in material costs.
    • Highly competitive export market: In the global market, tariff and non-tariff barriers coupled with a lack of free/preferential trade agreements are posing a major challenge to these Industries.
    • For instance, there is stiff competition in the international market from synthetic substitutes and from other competitors like Bangladesh, Brazil, Philippines, Egypt, and Thailand.
    • Other issues:
    • Poor access to the latest technology and low automation.
    • Social issues like child labor and personal safety norms.

    It must be noted that the growing global concern for environment-friendly, biodegradable materials, has once again opened the opportunity for jute products. In order to give an impetus to the jute industry, the government has approved that 100% of the food grains and 20% of the sugar shall be mandatorily packed in jute bags.

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Saurabh Soni
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Saurabh SoniLearner
Asked: July 6, 2024In:
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Evaluate the connection between the Indian monsoon and El Nino-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) phenomena critically.

upsc: oceanography
  1. Nikhil Joshi
    Nikhil Joshi Learner

    El Nino-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) occurs due to a periodical variation in temperatures between the ocean and atmosphere in the east-central Equatorial Pacific. It has two phases: El Niño, characterized by warmer ocean temperatures, and La Niña, characterized by cooler ocean temperatures. It signifRead more

    El Nino-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) occurs due to a periodical variation in temperatures between the ocean and atmosphere in the east-central Equatorial Pacific. It has two phases: El Niño, characterized by warmer ocean temperatures, and La Niña, characterized by cooler ocean temperatures. It significantly influences weather patterns globally, including the Indian monsoon system.

    Relationship between ENSO Events and the Indian Monsoon

    • Rainfall Patterns: During the ENSO phenomena, the Indian subcontinent experiences altered rainfall patterns. Eg: the severe drought in 2002 was due to a strong El Niño event. Conversely, the 1988 monsoon was one of the wettest on record, a direct effect of La Niña.
    • Onset Timing: The onset of the monsoon can be significantly affected by ENSO events, a classic example being the delayed onset in 2014 due to El Niño influences, which disrupted the agricultural calendar extensively.
    • Regional Variations: ENSO events foster significant regional disparities in weather conditions across India. For instance, during the 2006 El Niño, while central India experienced a dry spell, northeast India faced heavy floods due to irregular rainfall patterns.
    • Monsoon Depressions: La Niña encourages more monsoon depressions, as seen in 2010, resulting in a better-than-average monsoon season with bountiful rains, which, while aiding agriculture, also brought about challenges like flooding in several regions, including Punjab and Haryana.
    • Historical Events: For instance, El Niño events of 1877 and 1899 affected Indian monsoon reducing rainfall and caused severe droughts, showcasing a consistent pattern of distress during such periods. Understanding this historical trend is crucial for modern predictive and preparatory strategies.

    Impact of the Relationship between ENSO events and the Indian Monsoon

    • Food Security: During ENSO events, particularly El Niño, the rainfall patterns in India become erratic which directly affects food security. For example, the El Niño event in 2002 resulted in a substantial decline in food grain production, affecting the food security of millions.
    • Water Scarcity: Water scarcity becomes a pertinent issue in El Niño years. The year 2016 was marked with acute water shortages in various parts of India, necessitating even train services to transport water to the affected areas.
    • Biodiversity: Changing monsoon patterns have adverse effects on biodiversity. The Western Ghats, a biodiversity hotspot in India, witnessed severe disruptions in the ecosystems during the El Niño years, leading to loss of species and altered migration patterns.
    • Energy Sector: Hydroelectric power generation, which is a significant contributor to India’s energy sector, faces challenges due to irregular water availability. Eg: during 2023 summers (partially an El Niño year), power demand has touched the record height of 233 GW.
    • Rural Livelihoods: Rural populations, chiefly reliant on agriculture, face the brunt of ENSO events. The farmer distress witnessed in various states during 2002 and 2009 were largely due to the El Niño phenomena affecting the monsoons adversely.
    • Inflation: Agricultural output fluctuations lead to inflation, affecting the daily life of common people. During the 2009 El Niño event, India witnessed a surge in the prices of essential commodities, burdening the common man with increased costs, due to its double digit inflation rate (10.88%).

    Way Ahead

    • Improved Forecasting: Learning from Australia’s Bureau of Meteorology which utilizes state-of-the-art computational facilities to forecast weather patterns, India can further modernize the IMD with higher computational prowess for accurate predictions during ENSO events.
    • Water Conservation: Israel’s success story in water management through desalination and recycling of wastewater can serve as a benchmark. India can develop policies promoting these technologies to sustain water resources during erratic monsoon periods induced by ENSO events. Ex- Sujalam campaign.
    • Agricultural Adaptation: Taking cue from the SRI (System of Rice Intensification) method, which proved successful in Tamil Nadu, promoting such innovative agricultural practices nationally could enhance productivity despite adverse climatic conditions.
    • International Cooperation: Collaborating with initiatives like the Global Climate Observing System (GCOS) can help in assimilating data and research to better understand the ENSO events and devise strategies at a global level.
    • Leveraging technology: Promoting the development and use of Genetically Modified (GM) crops that are resistant to fluctuating weather conditions. Additionally, developing mobile apps to advise farmers on the best practices during varying climatic conditions.

    Overall, the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events have a profound impact on the Indian monsoon, affecting various sectors in India, including agriculture, biodiversity, and health. Adopting these strategies, India can pave a forward-thinking path in managing the impacts of ENSO events on its monsoonal patterns, focusing on sustainability and resilience in various sectors.

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Ronak Lal
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Ronak LalBegginer
Asked: June 17, 2024In:
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Give a thorough explanation of how coal is distributed throughout India.(Answer in 200 words)

upsc: mineral resource
  1. Malti devi
    Malti devi Learner

    Answer: Coal is a sedimentary rock with having high amount of carbon and hydrocarbons. It is combustible in nature and is classified as a non-renewable source of energy. It is found as Anthracite (90-95% Carbon content), Bituminous (60-80% Carbon content), Lignite (40-45% Carbon content) and Peat (Read more

    Answer: Coal is a sedimentary rock with having high amount of carbon and hydrocarbons. It is combustible in nature and is classified as a non-renewable source of energy. It is found as Anthracite (90-95% Carbon content), Bituminous (60-80% Carbon content), Lignite (40-45% Carbon content) and Peat (>40% Carbon content). Coal is the most important and abundant fossil fuel present in India. It accounts for more than 50% of India’s energy needs. The coal-bearing strata of India are geologically classified into two main categories, viz., Gondwana coal fields and Tertiary coal fields.

    • Gondwana Coal Fields: It comprises about 98 percent of the total reserves and 99 percent of the production of coal in India. In this system, there are 113 major coal fields found all over India. Gondwana coal is said to be about 250 million years old. Such fields are exclusively found in the peninsular region.
    • Tertiary Coal Fields: This rock system bears coals of younger age; from 15 to 60 million years. It shares only about 1% of the total coal production in India.

    Distribution and production of Gondwana coal in India:

    • Jharkhand: It has over 28 percent of the coal reserves and produces more than 20 percent of coal in India. There are 21 prominent coal fields in Jharkhand among which Jharia, Bokaro, and Rajmahal coalfields are famous.
    • Odisha: It is the second largest state with regard to coal reserves possessing 24.64 percent of the total reserves of India but is the third largest producer of coal contributing about 19 percent of the total coal production of the country. Talcher coalfields are one of the major •deposits.
    • Chhattisgarh: It has 16 percent of the coal reserves and produces over 21 percent of coal in India. Most of the coal fields of Chhattisgarh are located in the northern part of the state. Major coal fields include Korba and Tatapani.
    • West Bengal: It has over 11 percent of the coal reserves of the country but produces just over 4 percent of India’s coal. Raniganj is the largest coalfield in West Bengal.
    • Madhya Pradesh: It has about 8 percent of the coal reserves but contributes about 13 percent of the total coal production of India. Currently, Madhya Pradesh is the fourth largest coal-producing state of India. Major coalfields include Singrauli and Jhingurda.
    • Andhra Pradesh and Telangana: With only 7 percent of the reserves Andhra Pradesh and Telangana produce about 10 percent of India’s coal. Most of the coal reserves are in the Godavari Valley (Singreni coalfields).
    • Maharashtra: It has only 3 percent reserves, but accounts for over 7 percent of the production of coal in India. Kamptee Coalfields has the major coal deposits.

    Distribution and production of Tertiary Coal in India: This type of coal is present in Assam (Makum, Nazira, Mikir Hills), Meghalaya (Garo, Khasi, and Jaintia hills), Arunachal Pradesh (Namchick-Namrup coalfield), Jammu and Kashmir (Udhampur and Kalakot area) and in the Chamba district of Himachal Pradesh. There has also been a phenomenal increase in the production of lignite coal in India. Although lignite deposits are found in Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, Jammu and Kashmir, Kerala, Rajasthan, West Bengal, and Puducherry; Tamil Nadu (Neyveli coalfields) account for 90% of lignite reserves.

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Lala Ram
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Lala RamLearner
Asked: June 14, 2024In:
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Describe the idea of diastrophism and the procedures that go along with it.(Answer in 200 words)

upsc: geomorphology
  1. Mridubon Guswami
    Mridubon Guswami Begginer

     Diastrophism: Geomorphologically, the term Diastrophism refers to a geomorphic process of crust deformation. This process leads to the formation of continents and ocean basins. Diasreophim is involved in two distinct processes that are classified as:  Epeirogenic Processes: These processes are theRead more

     Diastrophism:

    Geomorphologically, the term Diastrophism refers to a geomorphic process of crust deformation. This process leads to the formation of continents and ocean basins.

    Diasreophim is involved in two distinct processes that are classified as: 

    Epeirogenic Processes: These processes are the vertical earth movements of the crust deformation created by endogenic forces These processes cause continental building by warping large parts of the Earth’s crust. There are two processes submergence and emergence.

    • Submergence: This process is caused by the rising sea level relative to the land surface. This downward movement may lead to the formation of rias and estuaries.
    • Emergence: This process is driven by falling sea levels relative to the land.or upliftment of the land that leads to the formation of marine terraces and coral reefs.

    Orogenic processes:  Geologically, these dystrophic processes are caused by the horizontal movement of the endogenic forces that may lead to the formation of Mountain-Building.

    The processes driven by the influence of dystrophic orogenic processes are:

    • Transitional forces: These processes may cause faulting and cracking that exceed the crust by stressing and shearing the rock’s strength.
    • Compressional forces: These processes may cause folding and warping that are subjected to compression within the crustal rocks.

     

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      Shyamlal Sharma
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      Shyamlal SharmaLearner
      Asked: July 6, 2024In:
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      Examine the fundamental causes of the “Dead Zones” that are appearing more frequently in marine environments.

      upsc: oceanography
      1. Dhanashree Thakur
        Dhanashree Thakur Begginer

        Marine organisms need oxygen to survive and if there is deficiency of oxygen demand it causes that area as a dead zone which also lead to a nutrient pollution in Marine water ecosystem. 1. climate change: temperature increases and water becomes warm and lighter and lose the ability to hold oxygen anRead more

        Marine organisms need oxygen to survive and if there is deficiency of oxygen demand it causes that area as a dead zone which also lead to a nutrient pollution in Marine water ecosystem.
        1. climate change: temperature increases and water becomes warm and lighter and lose the ability to hold oxygen and restrict the distribution of oxygen into the water.
        2. Eutrophication: It creates hypoxic condition in water due to algae bloom.
        3. Nutrient pollution: surplus of nutrients from agricultural run off, usage of fertilizers ,sewage through this enters into the water body and consume oxygen which leads to less oxygen supply.
        4. Pollution: Other than nutrient pollution heavy metals, chemicals, oil skills, industrial waste, domestic waste, can also pollute marine ecosystem and creates dead zone areas.
        example , Mexico experiences one of the largest dead zone globally due to nutrient rich to run out from the Mississippi River basi
        Dead zones in Marine ecosystem requires efforts to reduce pollution eutrophication climate change and need to improve water quality through proper waste water management good environmental policies and mindful agricultural practices.

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      Saurabh Soni
      • 0
      Saurabh SoniLearner
      Asked: July 6, 2024In:
      • 0

      Examine the weather patterns related to extratropical cyclones and elaborate on the features that set them apart.

      upsc: cyclone
      1. Jayesh Malhotra
        Jayesh Malhotra Begginer

        Extratropical cyclones, often referred to as mid-latitude or frontal cyclones, are a prevalent weather phenomenon occurring mainly in the middle and high latitudes. Forming outside the tropical zones, these cyclones are significant weather systems with vast influences on the climate and weather pattRead more

        Extratropical cyclones, often referred to as mid-latitude or frontal cyclones, are a prevalent weather phenomenon occurring mainly in the middle and high latitudes. Forming outside the tropical zones, these cyclones are significant weather systems with vast influences on the climate and weather patterns of the regions they affect.

        Meteorological Conditions Associated with Extratropical Cyclones

        • Temperature Contrast: They prominently occur where there is a significant temperature contrast, generally where polar and tropical air masses converge. Eg: in the North Atlantic region, the sharp temperature gradients leading to the “Nor’easters” in the northeastern U.S.
        • Frontogenesis: Frontogenesis, a process defining the birth or strengthening of a weather front, plays a pivotal role. During the 1993 “Storm of the Century” in the U.S., frontogenesis was witnessed with a rapid intensification of fronts, bringing about severe snowfalls.
        • Jet Streams: These cyclones often form and intensify near the jet streams, characterized by fast-flowing narrow air currents. Eg: the European windstorm “Kyrill” in 2007, fueled by the jet streams, showcased how these atmospheric rivers can enhance a cyclone’s development.
        • Cold and Warm Fronts: The dynamic interaction between cold and warm fronts leads to the formation of occluded fronts as the cyclone matures. Eg: during the historic “Ash Wednesday Storm” of 1962, which witnessed the merging of such fronts, resulting in extreme weather conditions.
        • Wind Patterns: As these cyclones develop, they induce specific wind patterns with winds spiraling inward and converging at the center. The “Great Appalachian Storm of 1950” in the U.S. showcased this wind pattern, with severe winds wreaking havoc over a large geographical expanse.
        • Rossby Waves: Rossby waves, large waves in the jet stream, significantly influence the lifecycle of extratropical cyclones. For instance, during the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) events, Rossby waves play a crucial role in determining the cyclones’ pathway and intensity.

        Distinctive Characteristics of Extratropical Cyclones

        • Broad Spatial Extent: These cyclones have a substantial spatial presence, often overshadowing their tropical counterparts. Eg: the “Great Storm of 1987” affected a vast area across the UK and France, showcasing the extensive geographical reach of extratropical cyclones. The Spatial Extent of Extratropical Cyclones ranges from 500 kms to 2500 kms.
        • Seasonal Variability: The “Winter of 2013-14” in North America saw a spate of extratropical cyclones, highlighting the seasonal predisposition of these weather events, significantly impacting regions with massive snowfalls and cold waves.
        • Asymmetric Structure: They frequently display an asymmetric structure, having divergent meteorological dynamics on different sides. Eg: the “1993 Superstorm” in the US, where one side experienced heavy snowfall while the other side encountered severe thunderstorms.
        • Variable Precipitation Patterns: They exhibit a diversity in precipitation patterns, encompassing rain, snow, or mixed phases. Eg: the “North American Blizzard of 2009” showcased varying precipitation patterns, including a mix of heavy snowfall and rain across different regions.
        • Complex Lifecycle: It is intricate, passing through stages from inception to occlusion. The series of cyclones impacting the UK in winter 2013-14 witnessed complex life cycles, evolving through various stages, showcasing the complexity in the developmental phases of these cyclones.
        • Impact on Weather: They substantially affect weather patterns, inducing sudden and drastic alterations in weather conditions over expansive areas. The “Derecho of 2020” (USA) brought about significant weather alterations, highlighting the transformative impact of these cyclones.

        Extratropical cyclones are dynamic weather systems which play a pivotal role in shaping the weather and climate of mid and high latitude regions. Understanding the meteorological conditions and distinctive characteristics of these cyclones is vital in weather forecasting and climate studies to mitigate their impacts effectively.

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      Rishi Sharma
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      Rishi SharmaBegginer
      Asked: June 25, 2024In:
      • 0

      The entertainment market in India is the second largest in the world. Examine the factors that led to the development of the Indian animation and visual effects industries in this context. (Answer in 150 words)

      upsc: transport & communication
      1. Tushar Swan
        Tushar Swan Begginer
      Pranjal shekh
      • 0
      Pranjal shekhBegginer
      Asked: June 25, 2024In:
      • 0

      Highlight the variations between the troposphere and stratospheric in the ozone generation and function. Talk about the several approaches to lessening the effects of tropospheric ozone. (Answer in 250 words)

      upsc: climatology
      1. Pritma Sharma
        Pritma Sharma Begginer

        Ozone (03) is a highly reactive gas composed of three oxygen atoms. It is both a natural and a man-made product that occurs in the Earth's upper atmosphere (stratosphere) and lower atmosphere oxygen (troposphere). Depending on where it is in the atmosphere, ozone affects life on Earth in either goodRead more

        Ozone (03) is a highly reactive gas composed of three oxygen atoms. It is both a natural and a man-made product that occurs in the Earth’s upper atmosphere (stratosphere) and lower atmosphere oxygen (troposphere). Depending on where it is in the atmosphere, ozone affects life on Earth in either good or bad ways. Formation of tropospheric and stratospheric ozone Tropospheric or ground-level ozone is formed primarily from photochemical reactions between two major classes of air pollutants, volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and nitrogen oxides (NOx). NOx and VOC break apart in the presence of intense sunlight and recombine into new structures, creating ozone. It is created by human activities as emissions from industrial facilities and electric utilities, motor vehicle exhaust, gasoline vapor, and chemical solvents are some of the major sources of NOx and VOC. On the other hand, stratospheric ozone is formed naturally through the interaction of solar ultraviolet (UV) radiation with molecular oxygen (02). Solar ultraviolet radiation breaks apart one oxygen molecule (02) to produce two oxygen atoms (20) and each of these highly reactive atoms combines with an oxygen molecule to produce an ozone molecule (03). These reactions occur continually whenever solar ultraviolet radiation is present in the stratosphere. Role of tropospheric and stratospheric ozone The tropospheric ozone or bad ozone can trigger a variety of health problems including chest pain, coughing, and throat irritation. It is also a major component of urban smog, which can worsen bronchitis and emphysema, trigger asthma, and permanently damage lung tissue. Further, bad ozone also damages vegetation and ecosystems as it leads to reduced agricultural crop and commercial forest yields, reduced growth and survivability of tree seedlings, and increased susceptibility to diseases, pests, and other stresses such as harsh weather. Whereas, the stratospheric ozone absorbs a portion of UV (Ultra Violet) light called UVB from the sun, preventing it from reaching the planet’s surface. Thus, it protects from many harmful effects, including skin cancers, cataracts, and harm to some crops and marine life. But this good ozone is gradually being destroyed by man-made chemicals referred to as ozone-depleting substances (ODS), including chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), etc.

        Strategies to prevent the formation of tropospheric ozone.

        • Fossil fuels & transport sector
          • Vapor recovery nozzles at the gasoline pumps to reduce refueling emissions.
          • Cleaner burning gasoline is reformulated through catalytic convertors to reduce VOC, NOx, etc.
          • Strict NOx emission limits for power plants and industrial combustion sources.
        • Agriculture sector:
          • Apply intermittent aeration of continuously flooded rice fields.
          • Introduce selective breeding to reduce emission intensity and increase production.
        • Waste management
          • Separate and treat biodegradable municipal waste, and turn it into compost or bioenergy.
          • Upgrade wastewater treatment with gas recovery and overflow control.
        • Better Monitoring of Ozone mitigation initiatives such as that of long-range Transboundary Air Pollution through the implementation of the Gothenburg protocol and effective forecasting through SAFAR (System of Air Quality and Weather Forecasting).

        The Government has further taken initiatives such as the National Clean Air Programme (NCAP), Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP), etc. to check ozone pollution and improve air quality. There is a need for the effective implementation of multi-faceted programs to cut NOx and VOC emissions from vehicles, industrial facilities, and electric utilities. Voluntary programs may also be started to encourage the communities to adopt practices, such as carpooling, to reduce harmful emissions.

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      Sita mata
      • 0
      Sita mataBegginer
      Asked: July 6, 2024In:
      • 0

      In the context of climate change, what is a climate tipping point and why is it deemed so important?

      upsc: climatology
      1. Umang Singh Yadav
        Umang Singh Yadav Expert
        This answer was edited.

        Climate Tipping Point - According to International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) - "Climate tipping points refers to the thresholds beyond which small changes in climate forcing forcing can trigger large, abrupt and potentially irreversible changes in climate system". Critical concerns of Climate TRead more

        Climate Tipping Point –

        According to International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) – “Climate tipping points refers to the thresholds beyond which small changes in climate forcing forcing can trigger large, abrupt and potentially irreversible changes in climate system”.

        Critical concerns of Climate Tipping Point  –

        1. It’s impact on agriculture and global food system led to food insecurity.
        2. Extreme weather patterns led to increased frequency and intensity of heatwaves, droughts and storms
        3. Threat to the coastal communities due to increase in sea level by thawing ice sheets and glaciers.
        4. Chances of ecosystem collapse because of loss of biodiversity and ecosystem services.
        5. Water scarcity due to change in water precipitation patterns and melting glaciers.
        6. Changes are irreversible in nature.
        7. Tipping points initiate the chain reaction and affect multiple systems.
        8. It causes risk to human health and well being with addition to Economic instability and losses .

         

        Climate tipping point is a critical concern to us and to mitigate this we have to follow few  processes like reducing immediate emissions to limit warming, transition to renewable energy sources, climate resilient infrastructure and their adoption with the help of international cooperation and governance.

         

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      Sangeeta rathor
      • 0
      Sangeeta rathorBegginer
      Asked: June 27, 2024In:
      • 0

      Although hydropower contributes little to India’s overall electricity generation, it is a significant global source of low-carbon energy. Talk about. (Answer in 150 words)

      upsc: mineral & energy resources
      1. Gopal Sharma
        Gopal Sharma Begginer

        In 2020, hydropower supplied around 17% of global electricity generation, the third-largest source after coal and natural gas. Hydropower provides for almost half of the total low carbon energy around the world due to its highly flexible nature. It also makes a major contribution to the security ofRead more

        In 2020, hydropower supplied around 17% of global electricity generation, the third-largest source after coal and natural gas. Hydropower provides for almost half of the total low carbon energy around the world due to its highly flexible nature. It also makes a major contribution to the security of electricity systems worldwide. India ranks fifth in the world in terms of usable hydroelectric potential. It is endowed with a large hydropower potential of 1,48,700 MW of which only 29% has been exploited so far (CEA Report) against over 80% and 70% developed by the US and EU respectively. Further, the share of hydropower in the total capacity has declined from 50.36% in the 1960s to around 13% in 2018-19.

        Reasons for low share of hydropower in India are as follows:

        • Hydropower planning: Planning for hydropower development in India has generally been oriented towards individual projects and not focused on sustainable development of an entire river basin. Also, as water and water power are State subjects, the construction of Hydro Electric Projects is often delayed due to conflicts among riparian States.
          • For instance, Shahpurkandi dam project (over Ravi), Sutlej-Beas link in Punjab and the Ujh Multipurpose Hydro Electric Project in Jammu and Kashmir are stuck due to red tape and inter-state disputes.
        • Land acquisition: Problems arising in the acquisition of land for hydropower projects are leading to suspension and delays in construction activities.
          • For instance, the 2,880 MW Dibang multipurpose project in Arunachal Pradesh is long- pending since 2008 due to land acquisition issues.
        • Safety and rehabilitation issues: Construction and operation of hydropower dams in India have often led to mass protests and public outcry on the issue of safety, environment and rehabilitation, resulting in unusual delays and cost overruns.
          • For example, the Tehri dam was commissioned more than 25 years after rehabilitation and resettlement was started.
        • Financing: Financing hydropower projects by finding an optimum balance between bankability and affordability is often a challenge due to capital intensive and long gestational nature as well as weak financial situation of the power distribution sector.
        • Geological issues: Handling the unpredictable geology of the young fold Himalayas where most of the Indian hydropower potential resides is a challenge.
        • Lack of enabling infrastructure: Development of associated physical infrastructure (roads, bridges) and transmission infrastructure for power evacuation in remote areas such as the North-East region increases the cost of power affecting project viability and sustainability.

        In the recent past, the government has approved targeted measures to promote hydropower development in India such as inclusion of large hydro power projects as renewable energy sources, Hydropower Purchase Obligation (HPO) as a separate category in the non-solar renewable purchase obligation (RPO), tariff rationalization measures, budgetary support for funding enabling infrastructure development, etc.

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