Similar to earthquakes, volcanoes are characterized by a well-defined global distribution in belts or zones. Talk about it. (Answer in 150 words)
Mains Answer Writing Latest Questions
Anil BhargavBegginer
Examine how climate change can affect the Indian Himalayan Region (IHR). What actions can be performed to lessen it? (Answer in 250 words)
Babita SinghBegginer
Talk on the importance of sustainable soil management in India given the significant role that soil plays in the ecosystem. (Answer in 250 words)
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Babita SinghBegginer
The world’s and India’s climates are significantly influenced by jet streams. Talk about it with examples. (Answer in 250 words)
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Jet streams are strong fast meandering narrow currents flowing in the upper troposphere. These are geostrophic westerly winds, which are developed when air masses of different temperatures meet. They usually extend from 20 degrees latitude to the poles in both hemispheres. Jet streams play a signifiRead more
Jet streams are strong fast meandering narrow currents flowing in the upper troposphere. These are geostrophic westerly winds, which are developed when air masses of different temperatures meet. They usually extend from 20 degrees latitude to the poles in both hemispheres.
Jet streams play a significant role in altering the global and regional climate.- Effect of Jet streams on climate of India:
- Western Disturbances in North India: The upper jet is responsible for steering of the western depressions [Western Disturbances] from the Mediterranean Sea. The southern branch of the jet stream exercises a significant influence on the winter weather conditions in India. winter weather conditions in India. Winter rain in north-western plains and occasional heavy snowfall in hilly regions are caused by these disturbances. These are generally followed by cold waves throughout the whole of northern plains.
- Winter Monsoon: During winters the dry winds from high-pressure areas in north-western India which bring cold waves start blowing towards the low-pressure area of the Bay of Bengal. They take up the moisture from Bay of Bengal and pour down as Winter Monsoon along the coast of Tamil Nadu.
- Indian Monsoon (Southwest Monsoon): With the beginning of summer in the month of March, the Subtropical Jet Stream (STJ) starts marching northwards and weakens. Whereas, an Easterly jet emerges over peninsular India with the northward migration of STJ. This creates low pressure over the Indian subcontinent, which in turn attracts moisture laden winds from southwest. The strength of the easterly jet decides the strength of SWM.
- Impact of Jet Stream on the global climate:
- Polar Vortex: The jet stream band near the North Pole essentially confines the Polar Vortex. When the jet stream near the pole falls apart, the Polar Vortex can shift its position farther south and allow frigid air to spill toward mid-latitudes which affects the global weather system, bringing in snowstorms in North America. Heat Waves: Scientists are of the viewpoint that a form of double jet stream, when the band of wind splits into two, is responsible for almost all the rise in Western Europe’s heat waves, and about a third of the increased heat waves over Europe as a whole.
- Ozone Depletion: Jetstream are also known to bring the ozone-depleting substances to the stratosphere hence aiding in the ozone layer depletion by acting as a vehicle.
- Temperate Cyclones: There is a close relationship between the intensity of temperate cyclones and jet streams. They can either steer the storms away from land or towards populated areas, causing devastation.
Further, the position of the jet stream also plays a crucial role in determining the strength and duration of El Nino and La Nina.
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Babita SinghBegginer
Describe the fundamental reasons behind the phenomena of sinking islands in the coastal areas of India. Consider its potential effects on island communities in particular as well as the country at large. (Answer in 250 words)
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India has a fragile network of over 1,382 islands. However, several of these islands are under natural and anthropogenic threat. In fact, one such island, the bio-diverse and uninhabited Parali I in the Lakshadweep archipelago, has entirely disappeared from the map. Reasons behind the phenomenon ofRead more
India has a fragile network of over 1,382 islands. However, several of these islands are under natural and anthropogenic threat. In fact, one such island, the bio-diverse and uninhabited Parali I in the Lakshadweep archipelago, has entirely disappeared from the map.
Reasons behind the phenomenon of sinking/shrinking islands in India’s coastal regions:
- Sea level rise: With climate change and global warming, sea levels are rising, thus, leading to submergence of low-lying islands.
- Natural erosion: Natural erosion due to high-intensity waves, tidal currents, and storms lead to the erosion of shorelines and cause the islands to shrink.
- Human activities: Human activities can disrupt natural ecosystems like coral reefs and mangrove forests that provide shoreline protection, leading to the shrinking of islands.
- Deforestation and land use change accelerate soil erosion exacerbating the shrinking of islands.
- Dam construction reduces the sediment proportion in the river depositing silt near these islands leading to shrinkage.
- Extreme weather events and disaster: Increased frequency of unseasonal cyclones in recent times increasing coastal erosion and subsidence due to earthquake and tsunami also sinks islands.
Implications for the nation:
- Economy: Shrinking or sinking islands can lead to the loss of land and natural resources, such as agricultural land, freshwater sources, and fishing grounds due to salt water incursion.
- Further, the tourism potential declines. For example, the island of Pamban in Tamil Nadu, a popular tourist destination, has seen a decline in tourism due to the loss of beaches and other natural attractions.
- Also, as islands shrink, the cost of maintaining infrastructure such as roads, buildings, and ports can increase significantly owing to constant adaptation as per the changing landscape.
- Environment: Shrinking islands can lead to environmental degradation, including soil erosion, loss of biodiversity, and increased pollution as it affects species endemic to the region.
- Strategic: Certain island groups such as Andaman & Nicobar, Lakshadweep etc. are situated at a strategic location, subsidence of which would have implications for the country in terms of security, trade etc.
Implications for island communities:
- Displacement of people: The shrinking of islands can lead to the displacement of people resulting in social and economic upheaval as they rely mainly on fishing and agriculture.
- Increased vulnerability to natural disasters: As islands become smaller, they become more vulnerable to natural disasters and communities become more vulnerable to increased food, water, and health insecurity.
- Loss of cultural heritage: Island communities often have a rich cultural heritage that is tied to their land and environment. E.g. Sagar Island known for the Gangasagar festival has supposedly been lost to sea at least four times.
- Loss of livelihood: The inhabited Divar Island in Goa is threatened by damage to the ancient protective bunds. As a result, there has been an influx of saline water that has impacted agriculture and drinking water in the island.
- Poor quality of life: The need to constantly rebuild their homes; where crops are routinely submerged by saline water affects the quality of lives due to associated uncertainties.
In this context, measures such as large scale mangroves plantation, adopting green technologies, early warning systems, etc. can go a long way in replicating the story of hope from Tamil Nadu: the Vaan island in the Gulf of Mannar, which was brought back to life.
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Akash PatelBegginer
Describe the process that causes the Indian monsoon to begin. Moreover, describe how ENSO affects the Indian monsoon.
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Mechanism of Onset of Indian Monsoon Differential Heating of Land and Water- Since Indian continent lies near too equator and is surrounded by water on three sides. During summers, land is heated due faster as compared to water creating a low pressure and a high pressure system respectively. InterRead more
Mechanism of Onset of Indian Monsoon
- Differential Heating of Land and Water- Since Indian continent lies near too equator and is surrounded by water on three sides. During summers, land is heated due faster as compared to water creating a low pressure and a high pressure system respectively.
- Inter Tropical Convergence Zone- Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) is the region near equator where trade winds from both the hemispheres collide. During summer season the ITCZ moves northwards approaching the Indian subcontinent, bringing large amount of water from the Indian Ocean. This movement of ITCZ plays a significant role in onset of monsoon.
- Heating of Tibetan Plateau- The extreme heating of Tibetan plateau leads to formation of low pressure over the same and a permanent high pressure in southern part of Indian Ocean.
- Jet Streams- The movement of ITCZ is associated with withdrawal of westerly jet stream from its position. This causes the onset of Somali Jet along 15°N at the former place of westerly jet.
Due to occurrence of above mentioned phenomena, the monsoon wind system originates. After hitting the tip of peninsula it breaks into two branches i.e. Arabian Sea branch (south-west monsoon) and Bay of Bengal branch (north-east branch).
ENSO stands for El Nino-Southern Oscillation. It is a recurring climatic phenomenon. During El Nino years, droughts are observed while El Nina years bring above average rainfall.
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Ritika SharmaLearner
Ocean thermal energy has the potential to produce 180,000 MW in India, but development in this area has been sluggish. In this situation, draw attention to the problems that are present and offer solutions. (Answer in 250 words)
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Ocean Thermal Energy is harnessed through a process called Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC). OTEC is a process or technology for producing energy by harnessing the temperature differences (thermal gradients) between ocean surface waters and deep ocean waters. The OTEC system uses a temperatureRead more
Ocean Thermal Energy is harnessed through a process called Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC). OTEC is a process or technology for producing energy by harnessing the temperature differences (thermal gradients) between ocean surface waters and deep ocean waters. The OTEC system uses a temperature difference of at least 20 degrees Celsius to power a turbine to produce electricity. India has a theoretical potential of 180,000 MW of ocean thermal energy. India is geographically well-placed to generate ocean thermal energy, with around 2000 kms of coastal length along the South Indian coast, where a temperature difference of above 20 degree Celsius is available throughout the year.
To tap ocean thermal energy, the National Institute of Ocean Technology, under the Union Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES) is establishing an Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion Plant with a capacity of 65 kilowatts (kW) in Kavaratti, Lakshadweep. The plant will power the one lakh litres per day low temperature thermal desalination plant, which converts seawater into potable water. The plant is the first of its kind in the world as it will generate drinking water from sea water using indigenous technology, green energy and environmentally friendly processes.
However, progress in this regard has been slow due to various challenges:- High cost: Setting up of OTEC plants for harnessing thermal energy potential requires significant costs of pumping and piping infrastructure. It is economical at very large scales only. The small land based OTEC plants need kilometres of piping to move a high volume of cold water from deep ocean. Its cost could be up to 75% of the total power plant costs.
- Restricted location: The suitable locations to harness OTEC are reduced to equatorial and tropical zones.
- Lack of technology: Most technologies are currently at pre-R&D demonstration stage of the initial stage of commercialization.
- Environmental concerns: It can have potential impact on marine organisms and ecosystems due to discharge of cooler, denser and nutrient rich water from the plants, entanglement in cables, entrapment, noise generation and pollutants. It can also lead to biofouling i.e. unwanted accumulation of algae, microorganisms, plants etc.
Remedial measures required in this context:
- Policy support is required for harnessing the potential of ocean thermal energy. It should not only include a robust national policy, but a proper plan of financial deployment to accelerate the existing program.
- There is a requirement of investment in R&D. Private sectors should be encouraged and be given incentives to contribute to technological development in this regard.
- India should take efforts to promote international collaborations in the field of utilising ocean energy and also bring littoral countries on a single platform for contributing in this field.
- There is a need to develop more demonstration projects at feasible sites so that a careful study of EIA can be done.
Ocean thermal energy has the potential to generate a constant, clean source of electricity unlike intermittent electricity from renewable resources like wind and solar. So, there is a need to create awareness about the potential of ocean thermal energy and its long-term benefits including reduction in carbon dioxide emissions.
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Shivam tiwariLearner
Give a general taxonomy of air masses and elaborate on the process of air mass development.
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An air mass is a large volume of air defined by its temperature and water vapour content. The geographical region and the specific conditions of the region where an air mass forms influence its characteristics significantly. Understanding the formation and classification of air masses is pivotal inRead more
An air mass is a large volume of air defined by its temperature and water vapour content. The geographical region and the specific conditions of the region where an air mass forms influence its characteristics significantly. Understanding the formation and classification of air masses is pivotal in meteorology, offering insights into weather patterns and climatic conditions.
Process of Air Mass Formation
- Source Region: Air masses form in large, stable regions known as source regions. A case in point is the Arctic region where continental polar air masses develop, characterized by their cold and dry properties due to the extreme conditions prevailing in this polar region.
- Temperature and Humidity: The specific climate of the source region moulds the temperature and humidity level of an air mass. The maritime tropical air masses, which develop over the Caribbean sea, for instance, are generally hot and carry high moisture content.
- Stability and Duration: They acquire characteristics of their source region over an extended period. Eg: the maritime air masses influencing the South Asian monsoons stabilize over the Indian Ocean for several days, absorbing moisture before moving towards the Indian subcontinent.
- High-Pressure Systems: These systems, especially in polar and subtropical regions, facilitate the birth of air masses. The Siberian High, a high-pressure system during winter, fosters very cold and dry air masses which influence a large part of the Asian continent.
- Seasonal Variations: Seasons play a pivotal role; like, the continental air masses from Canada are distinctly colder and drier during winter, contrasting sharply with their warmer and slightly more humid nature in summer, affecting the North American weather patterns accordingly.
- Solar Radiation: It has a direct bearing on an air mass’s temperature. Equatorial regions, receiving high solar radiation all year round, give birth to warm and humid air masses, which significantly impact the tropical climate, making it hot and wet most of the year.
- Topography: The geographical layout of a region, including features like mountains, influence the forming air masses. Eg: the air masses developing over the Rockies are distinctively dry due to the shadow effect and vary considerably in temperature due to the changing elevations.
- Wind and Convergence Zones: Wind patterns aid air mass formation, especially in areas where different air masses converge, such as the ITCZ where the meeting of trade winds fosters the development of warm, humid air masses, significantly influencing the tropical weather conditions.
General Classification of Air Masses
- Maritime Tropical (mT): They are known for their warm and humid characteristics, originating from tropical oceanic areas. Eg: the air masses generated over the Gulf of Mexico, which play a significant role in shaping the weather of southeastern regions of the USA.
- Continental Tropical (cT): They are warm yet dry, forming over desert areas like the Sahara Desert. These masses greatly influence North African weather, rendering it extremely dry and hot. The hot and dry winds can sometimes carry desert dust over long distances
- Maritime Polar (mP) : Cold and humid, these air masses are conceived over cold ocean waters in regions like the North Atlantic. They influence Western European climates, bringing cold and moist weather patterns, and are largely responsible for the unpredictable weather in the UK.
- Continental Polar (cP): Forming over land areas in polar regions, these cold and dry air masses often originate in Siberia during the winter season. They influence the cold weather patterns in East Asia, with temperatures plunging significantly during winter.
- Continental Arctic (cA): These air masses, born in Arctic regions, are recognized for extremely low temperatures. Their incursion into North America, especially Canada, results in frigid conditions, dictating a harsh winter season characterized by substantially low temperatures.
Understanding these classifications helps in predicting weather phenomena, aiding meteorologists in forecasting weather patterns accurately and understanding climate dynamics at various geographical locations. It forms the crux of weather prediction science, offering insights into how different regions experience diverse weather patterns.
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Pranjal shekhBegginer
Explain the significance of polymetallic nodules and show where they are found geographically. (Answer in 150 words)
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Polymetallic nodules (PMNs) are potato-shaped, largely porous nodules found in abundance carpeting the sea floor of world oceans in deep sea. Besides manganese and iron, they contain nickel, copper, cobalt, lead, molybdenum, cadmium, vanadium, titanium, of which nickel, cobalt and copper are consideRead more
Polymetallic nodules (PMNs) are potato-shaped, largely porous nodules found in abundance carpeting the sea floor of world oceans in deep sea. Besides manganese and iron, they contain nickel, copper, cobalt, lead, molybdenum, cadmium, vanadium, titanium, of which nickel, cobalt and copper are considered to be of economic and strategic importance.
Geographical distribution of PMNs:
PMNs were first discovered in the 19th century in the Kara Sea, in the Arctic Ocean off Siberia. Later, they were found to occur in most oceans of the world. However, nodules of economic interest are more localized. Three areas have been selected by industrial explorers:- the centre of the north central Pacific Ocean,
- the Peru Basin in the south-east Pacific Ocean and
- the centre of the north Indian Ocean.
They can occur at any depth, but the highest concentrations have been found between 4,000 and 6,000m.
Significance of PMNs:-
- Economic significance:
- They contain significant amounts of critical metals known as Rare Earth Elements and other metals which are important for high-tech manufacturing industries like electronic devices, smartphones, batteries, solar panels etc.
- PMNs extracted from deep-ocean, in contrast to terrestrial deposits, contain multiple commodities in one deposit; for example, nodules from the Clarion-Clipperton Zone contain Mn, Ni, Cu and Co.
- Strategic significance: Presence of PMNs gives strategic edge to a country. For example, exploration of PMNs in India will not only help in countering the influence of China but also help. improve bilateral relations with Japan, Germany, South Korea etc.
- Ecological significance:
- Deep-ocean mining used to extract PMNs can also avoid some of the environmental issues associated with terrestrial mining. Unlike metal ores on land which rarely have metal yields above 20%, and are often less than 2%, these PMNs are 99% usable minerals 33% metal and the rest useful in products like construction aggregate and fertilizer since there are notoxic levels of heavy elements like mercury or arsenic.
- So there are no toxic tailings or mining waste like on land, no deforestation, no open pits, no contaminated rivers or aquifers etc.
- Social significance: Unlike much of the land mining, PMNs mining does not use child labour.
- Source of critical metals: The development of societies towards a more sustainable future cannot proceed without critical metals. Deep-ocean mining can not only deliver the metals necessary for this transition but can do so with a low carbon footprint which is 90% less than land mining.
Recognizing the significance of PMNs, India launched its Deep Ocean Mission to explore PMNs in the Indian Ocean. It is expected that extracting PMNs will help India strengthen its strategic position vis- à-vis China besides helping its economy to grow.
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Shyamlal SharmaLearner
Discover the plethora of invasive landforms produced by volcanic activities.
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Volcanic processes are dynamic geological phenomena that shape the Earth's surface through the eruption of molten rock, ash, and gases. These processes give rise to both extrusive and intrusive landforms. Extrusive landforms, like conical hills, form outside the Earth's surface, while intrusive landRead more
Volcanic processes are dynamic geological phenomena that shape the Earth’s surface through the eruption of molten rock, ash, and gases. These processes give rise to both extrusive and intrusive landforms. Extrusive landforms, like conical hills, form outside the Earth’s surface, while intrusive landforms, such as batholiths, develop within the Earth’s crust.
Intrusive Landforms that Emerge from Volcanic Processes
Intrusive landforms are structures that result from the solidification of magma beneath the Earth’s surface. They can take various shapes and sizes, each with its own unique characteristics. Different such landforms can be explained as follows:
- Dykes: Dykes are vertical or near vertical sheet-like intrusions of magma that cut across existing rock layers. When magma rises through fractures in the Earth’s crust and solidifies, it forms these wall-like structures. Cleveland Dyke of Yorkshire, England serves as an example.
- Sills: Sills are horizontal sheet-like intrusions of magma that parallel the layers of existing rock. They are created when magma is injected between layers of sedimentary or volcanic rock. Over time, erosion can expose these features, creating prominent landscape features like the Palisades in New Jersey.
- Laccoliths: Laccoliths are lens shaped intrusions of magma that push up overlying rock layers into a dome shape. As the magma forces its way upward, it creates a characteristic bulge in the Earth’s surface. The Henry Mountains in Utah are an example of laccoliths.
- Batholiths: Batholiths are the largest intrusive landforms, often covering vast areas of 40 square miles or more. These massive bodies of intrusive igneous rock form when magma cools and solidifies deep within the Earth’s crust. The Sierra Nevada Batholith in California is a well-known example.
- Stocks: Stocks are smaller, irregularly shaped intrusive bodies of magma that lack the massive scale of batholiths. They are typically less than 40 square miles in area. Devils Tower, Wyoming, USA serves as an example.
- Volcanic Necks: These are remnants of ancient volcanoes that have eroded over time, leaving behind the solidified magma conduit or throat of the volcano. Ship Rock in New Mexico is a notable example of a volcanic neck.
Understanding this myriad of intrusive landforms emerging from volcanic processes not only provides insights into the geological history of a region but also plays a crucial role in various scientific fields, including geology, mineral exploration, and even geothermal energy production.
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Earthquakes and volcanoes are natural phenomena and are closely linked with seismic events. An earthquake is caused by to release of energy along a fault in the earth's crust, which generates waves that travel in all directions. A volcano is a place where gases, ashes, and/or molten rock material laRead more
Earthquakes and volcanoes are natural phenomena and are closely linked with seismic events. An earthquake is caused by to release of energy along a fault in the earth’s crust, which generates waves that travel in all directions. A volcano is a place where gases, ashes, and/or molten rock material lava – escape to the ground. The spatial distribution of earthquakes and volcanoes shows a close relation between the two as indicated in the figure below: Most of the largest earthquakes that ever happened on Earth, were along the Circum-Pacific belt, which is also called the ‘Ring of Fire. After this, earthquakes have been more frequent in the Alpide or Alpine-Himalayan earthquake belt, which runs from Java to Sumatra through the Himalayas, the Mediterranean, and out into the Atlantic. The third prominent belt follows the submerged mid-Atlantic Ridge. The map of volcanoes also shows a similar pattern. They are distributed along three major belts or zones in the world, namely-
(i) Circum-Pacific belt: Also known as the ‘volcanic zones of the convergent oceanic plate margins’, it includes the volcanoes of the eastern and western coastal areas of the Pacific Ocean, of island arcs and festoons off the east coast of Asia and of the volcanic islands scattered over the Pacific Ocean. (ii) Mid-continental belt: Also known as ‘the volcanic zones of convergent continental plate margins’, it includes the volcanoes of Alpine mountain chains and the Mediterranean Sea and the volcanoes of the fault zone of eastern Africa. (iii) Mid-oceanic ridge belt: This belt includes the volcanoes mainly along the mid-Atlantic ridge which represents the splitting/divergent zone of plates. The spatial distribution of volcanoes and earthquakes show similarities as both events are closely linked with the Theory of Plate Tectonics, which explains the formation of convergent and divergent boundaries and the motion of plates. 
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