Model Answer

The Revolt of 1857 led to significant changes in the British administration and army in India, reflecting the British government’s response to the rebellion and its efforts to maintain control.

Changes in the Administration

1. Transfer of Power:
   The Government of India Act, 1858, marked the transfer of power from the East India Company to the British Crown. Queen Victoria was declared the sovereign of British India, and the administration was now to be overseen by a Secretary of State for India, supported by a Council. The Governor-General of India, now titled Viceroy, continued to administer the country (source: Government of India Act, 1858).
2. Provincial Administration:
   The Indian Councils Act of 1861 brought decentralisation to the provincial level. It established Legislative Councils in major provinces like Bombay, Madras, and Bengal, which helped distribute authority across local governments (source: Indian Councils Act, 1861).
3. Local Bodies and Public Services:
   Following the financial strains of the revolt, the British promoted local governance through Municipalities and District Boards. Additionally, the Indian Civil Service, previously an exclusive British institution, was opened to Indians, allowing them to take competitive exams for administrative posts (source: administrative reforms after 1857).

Changes in the Army

1. Increased Role of Europeans:
   To prevent future uprisings, the British restructured the army, increasing the proportion of European soldiers. European troops were placed in key military positions, especially in artillery, tanks, and armoured corps, which were kept under European control (source: army reorganisation after 1857).
2. Divide and Rule:
   The British adopted a “divide and rule” strategy in recruiting Indian soldiers, focusing on caste, religion, and regional differences to prevent unity among the Indian troops. They introduced caste-based regiments and communal companies, ensuring the army remained divided and loyal to British interests (source: army recruitment policies post-1857).

These reforms made the British rule more autocratic, suppressing Indian aspirations for power-sharing. Ultimately, this approach contributed to the rise of modern nationalism among the educated Indian middle class.

Model Answer

Introduction

Indian nationalism emerged as a powerful reaction against British colonial policies, deeply intertwined with the anti-colonial movement. The shared experience of oppression under colonial rule fostered a sense of unity among diverse groups in India.

Emergence of Indian Nationalism

1. Segregation and Discrimination

British policies of segregation sparked widespread opposition.

• Fact: Lytton’s policies, such as lowering the age limit for the Indian Civil Service (ICS) examination from 21 to 19 in 1876 and the Vernacular Press Act (1878), fueled resentment.
• Fact: The Illbert Bill controversy aimed to eliminate racial inequality in the judiciary but faced strong opposition from British residents, highlighting racial antagonism where Englishmen deemed themselves superior.

2. Political and Administrative Divide

The Partition of Bengal in 1905, orchestrated by Viceroy Lord Curzon, intensified nationalist sentiments.

• Fact: This partition aimed to divide and rule by creating religious divisions, but it instead united various communities against colonial policies.

3. Technological Unification

The British introduced railways and telegraphs primarily for military logistics.

• Fact: However, these developments facilitated greater communication and connected political leaders and the masses, fostering a sense of national identity.

4. Legal Unification

The establishment of a unified judiciary and codified laws created a new dimension of political unity.

• Fact: This legal framework linked diverse regions and cultures, enhancing the sense of a unified nation.

5. Western Thought and Education

The introduction of modern education allowed the assimilation of Western ideas.

• Fact: Knowledge of English empowered nationalist leaders to communicate across linguistic barriers, promoting a collective national identity.

6. Rise of the Middle Class Intelligentsia

British economic policies led to the emergence of a new urban middle class.

• Fact: This class, educated and politically aware, became the backbone of the Indian National Congress, driving the nationalist movement.

Other Influential Factors

• Contemporary Movements: The successes of liberation movements in South America and Europe inspired Indian nationalists.
• Role of the Press: The growth of Indian-owned newspapers critiqued colonial policies and promoted unity.
• Rediscovery of India’s Past: Scholars like Max Müller and Swami Vivekananda reshaped narratives, instilling pride in India’s heritage.
• Socio-Religious Reform Movements: Organizations like the Arya Samaj and Brahmo Samaj fostered national pride.

Conclusion

Indian nationalism was not solely a product of colonial policies; it arose as a complex interplay of reactions to these policies and broader socio-political movements. The emergence of a unified national identity was shaped by both the oppressive nature of colonial rule and the diverse responses it provoked across India.