The Mauryan Empire (321–185 BCE) marked a significant era in Indian history, known for its advancements in art and architecture. Much of this art was closely linked to Buddhism, reflecting Emperor Ashoka’s adoption of the faith and his efforts to promote its principles.

Features of Mauryan Art and Architecture

1. Stone Pillars:

• Ashokan Pillars are among the most iconic examples of Mauryan art.
  • Made from polished sandstone, they were carved from a single piece of stone.
  • The Lion Capital of Sarnath, now India’s national emblem, is a famous example.
• These pillars carried edicts inscribed in Prakrit, spreading Buddhist teachings like compassion, tolerance, and non-violence.
• The pillars typically featured animal motifs such as lions, elephants, and bulls, symbolizing power, wisdom, and fertility.

2. Stupas:

• The Mauryan period witnessed the construction of large stupas, such as the Sanchi Stupa, built under Ashoka’s patronage.
• These were hemispherical structures containing Buddhist relics, serving as meditation centers and symbols of enlightenment.

3. Rock-Cut Architecture:

• The Mauryans initiated the tradition of carving structures into rocks.
• Examples include the Barabar Caves in Bihar, which served as monastic retreats for Ajivikas and Buddhists.
• The interiors of these caves were polished to a mirror-like finish, showcasing advanced craftsmanship.

4. Use of Polished Stone:

• Mauryan artisans were pioneers in the use of polished sandstone, giving their sculptures a refined and glossy appearance.
• This technique was evident in both structural and sculptural works, like the Ashokan Pillars.

5. Simplicity and Symbolism:

• Mauryan art emphasized simplicity, with symbols conveying deeper meanings.
• The Dharma Chakra (Wheel of Dharma) and the Lotus were common motifs representing Buddhist philosophy.

Relationship Between Mauryan Art and Buddhism

1. Promotion of Buddhism:
   • Emperor Ashoka’s conversion to Buddhism after the Kalinga War was pivotal in aligning Mauryan art with Buddhist ideals.
   • He commissioned the construction of stupas, monasteries, and pillars to propagate Buddhist teachings across his empire and beyond.
2. Spread of Buddhist Philosophy:
   • The Ashokan Edicts, inscribed on pillars and rocks, were written in local languages and scripts to ensure accessibility, spreading messages of peace, morality, and respect for all life forms.
3. Symbolic Representation:
   • Buddhist symbols like the lotus (purity), elephant (Buddha’s birth), and lion (power and Dharma) were prominently used in Mauryan art.
4. Monastic Support:
   • The Barabar Caves and other rock-cut structures were built as sanctuaries for monks, fostering the growth of Buddhist monastic traditions.

Examples of Mauryan Art

1. Lion Capital of Sarnath:
   • Features four lions atop a circular abacus with the Dharma Chakra.
   • Represents strength, unity, and the spread of Buddhist ideals.
2. Sanchi Stupa:
   • A significant Buddhist monument built under Ashoka’s patronage.
   • Represents the Buddha’s journey toward enlightenment.
3. Barabar Caves:
   • Located in Bihar, these caves were donated to the Ajivikas but also influenced later Buddhist rock-cut architecture.

Conclusion

Mauryan art and architecture played a crucial role in shaping India’s cultural and religious heritage. Its association with Buddhism was instrumental in spreading the faith across Asia while laying the foundation for Indian monumental art. The Mauryan Empire’s contributions remain a testament to the fusion of political power and spiritual ideals

India’s economic planning began with the First Five-Year Plan in 1951, with the aim of developing a mixed economy that balanced both public and private sectors. Over the decades, India’s Five-Year Plans, guided by the Planning Commission (later replaced by the NITI Aayog in 2015), focused on key sectors such as agriculture, industry, and services. The achievements of Indian economic planning can be evaluated in terms of economic growth, infrastructure development, and social welfare.

1. Growth in National Income

• Economic Growth: One of the significant outcomes of Indian economic planning was sustained growth in national income. For example, the First Five-Year Plan (1951-1956) aimed at increasing the country’s agricultural output, while subsequent plans focused on industrialization and service sectors. By the Sixth Five-Year Plan (1980-1985), India’s GDP growth rate improved significantly.
  • Example: India’s GDP grew at an average annual rate of about 6% during the 1980s, which was considered good at the time.
• Industrialization: Economic planning in India contributed to a substantial increase in industrial output, especially in the public sector. Key industries like steel, cement, and machinery were developed, with public sector enterprises like BHEL (Bharat Heavy Electricals Ltd) and SAIL (Steel Authority of India Ltd) emerging as crucial players in India’s industrial landscape.

2. Agricultural Development and Food Security

• Green Revolution: The Green Revolution of the 1960s, implemented during the Third Five-Year Plan, was one of the most important achievements of Indian economic planning. The use of high-yielding variety (HYV) seeds, chemical fertilizers, and better irrigation techniques increased the production of cereals, particularly wheat and rice.
  • Example: India’s food grain production increased from 82 million tons in 1961 to 204 million tons by 2000.
  • Impact: This development helped India move from being a food-deficient country to achieving food security and even exporting food grains to other countries.
• Irrigation Projects: Planning also focused on expanding irrigation networks, which helped increase agricultural productivity. Projects like the Bhakra Nangal Dam and the Indira Gandhi Canal in Rajasthan contributed significantly to this growth.

3. Infrastructure Development

• Transport and Communication: Indian planning focused heavily on infrastructure development. The expansion of road networks, railways, airports, and telecommunication systems significantly contributed to the growth of the economy.
  • Example: The Golden Quadrilateral project, which connected major cities like Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, and Chennai, greatly improved India’s transportation infrastructure.
• Energy Sector: India also saw an expansion of its power generation capacity during the planning years. Power generation from thermal, hydroelectric, and nuclear sources increased significantly.
  • Example: The Nuclear Power Program, which began in the 1950s, led to the establishment of several nuclear power plants in the country.

4. Social Development and Welfare Programs

• Health and Education: Economic planning helped improve India’s healthcare and education sectors, though challenges remain. Various plans focused on building schools, hospitals, and other social infrastructure to improve the living standards of citizens.
  • Example: The National Rural Health Mission (NRHM) launched during the Tenth Five-Year Plan aimed at improving health services in rural areas.
• Poverty Alleviation: The Fifth Five-Year Plan (1974-1979) introduced programs like Integrated Rural Development Program (IRDP) to tackle poverty and promote rural development. This helped lift millions of people out of poverty.
  • Example: The Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana (PMJDY) introduced during the Twelfth Plan (2012-2017) aimed at increasing financial inclusion, particularly in rural areas.

5. Self-Reliance in Key Sectors

• Industrialization and Self-reliance: The Indian government adopted a strategy of self-reliance through the promotion of key industries, which led to India becoming less dependent on foreign countries for essential goods.
  • Example: The establishment of public sector undertakings (PSUs) in sectors like steel, heavy engineering, and defense manufacturing helped India develop its indigenous industrial base.

6. Focus on Human Development

• Human Development Index (HDI): Indian economic planning also contributed to better living standards for the population, though the country’s HDI ranking remains lower than many developed nations. Improvements in areas such as life expectancy, literacy, and access to basic amenities like clean water and sanitation have been crucial.
  • Example: India’s HDI score improved over the decades, from 0.398 in 1970 to 0.645 in 2019 (according to UNDP reports).

Challenges and Criticism

While Indian economic planning has led to several achievements, it has faced challenges:

• Population Growth: The rapid population growth often overshadowed the achievements of economic planning. India’s population surged from around 350 million in 1951 to 1.3 billion in 2020, making it difficult to meet all the goals set by various plans.
• Regional Disparities: Economic development has not been uniform across the country. While some regions, particularly urban areas, have prospered, rural areas still face significant challenges like poverty, illiteracy, and lack of basic infrastructure.
• Dependency on Agriculture: Despite the Green Revolution, India’s economy remains heavily dependent on agriculture, and this sector still faces challenges like poor irrigation, low productivity, and vulnerability to climatic changes.

Conclusion

Indian economic planning has been successful in many ways, especially in industrial development, agriculture, infrastructure, and poverty alleviation. However, challenges such as uneven development, poverty, and inadequate social welfare systems persist. The planning process has evolved, and while it helped India become a growing economy, the country now faces the task of shifting towards more sustainable and inclusive growth strategies in the modern context.

The United Nations Sustainable Development Solutions Network (SDSN) emphasizes a multidimensional approach to well-being, focusing on various social, economic, and environmental factors. The network’s framework for well-being highlights several key variables that contribute to a person’s and society’s overall health, prosperity, and sustainable development.

Key Variables Supporting Well-being

1. Good Health and Well-being (SDG 3)

• Universal Health Coverage (UHC):
  • Access to affordable healthcare is a critical pillar for well-being. The UN stresses the importance of ensuring that everyone, regardless of income or location, has access to essential health services.
  • For example, countries with comprehensive healthcare systems, such as Norway and Canada, show better health outcomes for their citizens.
• Mental Health:
  • Mental health is as important as physical health. The increasing recognition of mental health issues has led to global initiatives to reduce the stigma and provide adequate services.

Example: The World Health Organization (WHO) advocates for mental health services integrated into primary health systems, acknowledging that the mental well-being of individuals is crucial to overall happiness.

2. Education

• Access to Quality Education (SDG 4):
  • Education is directly linked to well-being as it empowers individuals to make informed choices, improving life satisfaction and economic mobility.
  • For instance, Finland’s education system is often cited for its focus on both academic knowledge and emotional well-being, which results in better life outcomes for students.
• Lifelong Learning:
  • Ensuring opportunities for lifelong learning and skills development promotes economic stability and personal growth, which are important components of well-being.

3. Economic Stability

• Income Equality and Poverty Reduction (SDG 1):
  • Economic stability, with reduced income inequality, plays a significant role in enhancing well-being. The SDSN emphasizes the importance of achieving decent work and fair wages, which contribute to reducing poverty and increasing social mobility.
• Employment Opportunities:
  • Access to secure employment allows individuals to achieve financial independence and improve quality of life.

Example: Countries like Denmark and Sweden focus on reducing inequality through progressive tax systems, strong social safety nets, and universal access to healthcare and education.

4. Environmental Sustainability

• Climate Action (SDG 13):
  • A healthy environment is fundamental for sustaining human well-being. The UN promotes reducing environmental degradation, improving air quality, and addressing climate change to protect human health.
• Access to Clean Water and Sanitation (SDG 6):
  • Clean water, sanitation, and pollution control are essential to preventing diseases and enhancing quality of life.

Example: Iceland, with its focus on clean energy and environmental protection, leads by example in creating a sustainable environment that supports public health and well-being.

5. Social Inclusion and Equality

• Gender Equality (SDG 5):
  • Ensuring gender equality by addressing discrimination and empowering women contributes significantly to well-being. Equal access to resources and opportunities is crucial for building a fair and prosperous society.
• Social Protection:
  • Access to social protection systems (such as pensions, unemployment benefits, and disability support) promotes well-being by reducing vulnerabilities and enhancing economic security.

Example: In countries with strong social protection systems, like Germany, citizens experience a higher sense of security and well-being.

Analysis Beyond Income, Averages, and Present Conditions

The SDSN’s approach to well-being goes beyond income and material wealth, acknowledging the complexity of human flourishing:

1. Holistic Well-being:
   • Beyond GDP: The SDSN emphasizes that well-being is more than just economic output, as it includes factors such as health, education, social inclusion, and environmental sustainability. For instance, Bhutan’s Gross National Happiness (GNH) Index evaluates well-being through happiness rather than just financial success.
2. Intergenerational Perspective:
   • The SDSN stresses the importance of considering the long-term impact of present actions on future generations. For example, the effects of climate change and environmental degradation today will affect future generations’ health and opportunities.
3. Cultural and Social Factors:
   • Well-being is also shaped by social networks, cultural values, and community involvement. Countries with strong social cohesion, such as Japan, demonstrate that a sense of belonging and social participation contribute significantly to overall life satisfaction.

Conclusion

The UN Sustainable Development Solutions Network (SDSN) highlights a broad and multidimensional approach to well-being, focusing on health, education, economic stability, environmental sustainability, and social inclusion. By integrating these diverse variables, the SDSN provides a more comprehensive understanding of well-being, moving beyond simple economic indicators like income or GDP.