Science & Technology

Model Answer

India’s Three-Stage Nuclear Power Program, proposed by Dr. Homi Bhabha in 1954, aims to harness the country’s indigenous nuclear resources, particularly its abundant Thorium reserves, alongside modest Uranium supplies. The program consists of three stages:

1. Stage I – Pressurized Heavy Water Reactors (PHWR): The first stage focuses on the use of PHWRs, with the first reactor starting operations in Rajasthan in 1973. In December 2023, India’s largest indigenously developed 700-MWe PHWR achieved criticality in Kakrapar, Gujarat. Currently, the Nuclear Power Corporation of India (NPCIL) operates 24 reactors, contributing 8,180 MWe to the national grid.
2. Stage II – Fast Breeder Reactors (FBR): In 2003, BHAVINI was established to oversee the development of the Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor (PFBR). By March 2024, the PFBR at Kalpakkam, Tamil Nadu, marked a significant milestone by commencing ‘core loading’, advancing the country’s move towards efficient nuclear energy production.
3. Stage III – Advanced Reactors: The third stage involves the development of reactors that use Thorium as fuel. The Kamini reactor, located in BARC, is the only reactor worldwide using U-233 as fuel. Additionally, the Advanced Heavy Water Reactor (AHWR) is being developed, with a 300 MWe AHWR300-LEU designed as a technology demonstrator for Thorium utilization.

Challenges in Implementation

Despite the progress, several challenges hinder the smooth execution of the program:

1. Nuclear Fuel Availability: Limited domestic uranium resources and its low quality, sourced primarily from Jharkhand and Andhra Pradesh, pose significant hurdles in fuel supply.
2. Technological Delays in Stage II: The commissioning of the PFBR has faced delays due to technical difficulties and cost overruns, with the project expected to be completed by 2010 but delayed by over a decade.
3. Third Stage Roadblocks: The realization of the third stage remains distant due to challenges in recycling U-233, crucial for a sustainable thorium-U-233 fuel cycle.
4. Public Opposition: Concerns regarding safety, environment, and livelihood have led to delays, such as the 35-year delay in building reactors at Kudankulam due to public protests.
5. Competition from Renewable Energy: The rising popularity and decreasing cost of renewable energy sources, such as solar and wind, have diverted attention from nuclear energy.

In conclusion, while significant progress has been made, India’s Three-Stage Nuclear Power Program still faces substantial challenges that need to be addressed for its long-term success and energy security.

Model Answer

Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR): A Multifaceted Socio-Economic Issue

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is not only a scientific problem but a significant socio-economic challenge that affects healthcare systems, economies, and social structures. It arises when microorganisms evolve to resist the effects of drugs that were previously effective in treating infections.

Impact on Health and Economy

AMR leads to increased mortality. In India, over a million deaths were linked to AMR in 2019, with patients facing higher risks of complications and death due to resistant infections. The economic burden is substantial. The World Bank estimates that AMR could add US$ 1 trillion to healthcare costs by 2050 and cause a loss of US$ 1 trillion to US$ 3.4 trillion in global GDP annually by 2030. Furthermore, AMR contributes to declining labour productivity, with the CDC reporting a loss of $35 billion annually in the U.S. due to AMR-related productivity loss. Poverty and inequality are exacerbated by AMR, with vulnerable populations, such as marginalized communities, disproportionately affected. A World Bank report suggests that AMR could push 24 million people into extreme poverty by 2030.

Scientific and Social Challenges

Developing new antibiotics is scientifically demanding and expensive, with costs exceeding $1 billion. However, the limited economic returns deter pharmaceutical companies from investing in antibiotic research. This results in a shortage of new drugs to combat resistant infections.

Measures to Tackle AMR in India

1. Standardization and Regulation

The Indian government should enforce the accreditation of hospitals and diagnostic labs to ensure standardized healthcare. Additionally, strict enforcement of the Drugs and Cosmetics Rules, 1945, and adherence to standard treatment guidelines will help control AMR.

2. Surveillance and Monitoring

Implementing robust surveillance systems to track AMR strains and regularly analyzing data will help in early detection and effective management of resistant infections.

3. Awareness and Education

Awareness programs targeting healthcare providers and the general public about the dangers of AMR and the need for responsible antibiotic use are crucial.

4. Research and Development

Promoting research into new antibiotics and supporting equitable access to these drugs once developed can ensure long-term solutions to AMR.

AMR, often termed the “Silent Pandemic,” requires urgent attention through comprehensive policy actions, including the One Health approach and adherence to international frameworks like the Chennai Declaration on AMR.

Model Answer

Introduction to IPR and Emerging Technologies

Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) are crucial for protecting the innovations and creations of individuals. In India, IPR laws like patents, copyrights, and trademarks safeguard the interests of creators and inventors. However, with the advent of emerging technologies, the traditional IPR regime faces challenges in addressing the complexities introduced by new inventions.

Challenges to IPR with Emerging Technologies

1. AI and Patents: The rise of Artificial Intelligence (AI) presents a dilemma for the current patent regime. AI systems can autonomously generate inventive solutions, but under the Indian Patent Act of 1970, only humans can be patent holders. This exclusion creates confusion around ownership and attribution, as AI may be the actual inventor behind certain inventions .

2. 3D Printing and Copyrights: 3D printing allows individuals to easily replicate designs, potentially undermining companies’ ability to protect intellectual property. The ease of reproduction poses a threat to the protection of designs, requiring updates in copyright and patent laws to address these concerns .

3. Copyright and AI-generated Content: AI can generate content such as text, music, and videos, but the current Copyright Act only allows natural persons (individuals or businesses) to hold copyrights. This creates an issue when the creator is an AI system, leaving a gap in the law regarding ownership of AI-generated works .

4. Biotechnology and Patents: Biotechnological innovations, such as gene editing, often blur the lines between natural and man-made creations. As these technologies advance, the existing patent laws may struggle to define what constitutes a patentable invention in the biotechnology sector .

5. Blockchain and Patents: Blockchain technology uses algorithms and computer programs, which, under Section 3(k) of the Indian Patents Act, may not be patentable. This poses challenges for patenting blockchain-related inventions, as the distinction between mathematical algorithms and actual inventions remains unclear .

Conclusion

The current IPR regime in India faces numerous challenges due to emerging technologies. Policymakers need to update legal frameworks to address issues of ownership, authorship, and protection, ensuring they remain relevant in the face of rapid technological advancements.

Model Answer

Definition of Brain-Computer Interface (BCI)

A Brain-Computer Interface (BCI) is a direct communication pathway between the brain’s electrical activity and an external device. It allows for the translation of brain signals into actionable outputs, such as controlling a computer cursor or operating a robotic arm. This communication occurs through sensors that detect signals transmitted between neurons, which are then relayed to external devices.

Components of BCI

1. Signal Acquisition: This is the first step in BCI where analog brain signals are captured using various sensors. These signals are amplified, filtered, and digitized before being transferred to the processing unit for further analysis.
2. Feature Extraction: In this stage, the system extracts unique features from the brain signals. These features are vital for identifying the user’s intent and enabling the interface to function correctly.
3. Feature Translation: After extracting features, the system uses algorithms to convert the signals into commands for the external device, such as moving a robotic limb or controlling a cursor.
4. Device Output: The output device responds to the commands, offering functionalities like robotic movement or cursor control, and provides feedback to the user, thereby closing the control loop.

Applications of BCI

1. Bioengineering: BCIs assist individuals with severe neurological disabilities by improving social interaction and quality of life. For example, Neuralink’s device helps individuals with paralysis or amputations regain movement or sensory functions.
2. Cognitive Performance: BCIs enhance productivity by monitoring brain activity. Neurable’s BCI-enhanced headphones, for instance, optimize focus periods.
3. Mind Writing: BCIs enable communication for individuals unable to speak due to conditions like ALS. Stanford University’s brain chip, for example, helps users type 62 words per minute, facilitating effective communication.
4. Military: BCIs are used in military applications, such as controlling drones or UAVs. DARPA’s BCI allows a pilot to control swarms of UAVs with thoughts alone.

BCIs have vast potential to improve lives and revolutionize fields like healthcare, education, and defense. However, issues related to privacy and accessibility need attention for broader adoption.

Model Answer

Introduction

M.S. Swaminathan, widely known as the father of India’s Green Revolution, made transformative contributions to scientific research and technological innovation in Indian agriculture. His pioneering efforts have been instrumental in shaping the agricultural landscape of India, enhancing food production, and ensuring food security.

Introduction of High-Yielding Varieties (HYV) Seeds

One of Swaminathan’s most significant contributions was the introduction of high-yielding varieties (HYV) of crops, which dramatically improved agricultural productivity. Notable examples include the Mexican dwarf wheat varieties ‘Lerma Rojo’ and ‘Sonora-64’, and the rice variety ‘IR8’. These varieties, introduced in the 1960s, boosted India’s wheat and rice production, making the country self-sufficient in food production for the first time. These efforts were foundational to the Green Revolution in India, a milestone in agricultural history.

Innovations in Agricultural Practices

Swaminathan also made remarkable strides in improving agricultural practices. He focused on developing pest-resistant and climate-tolerant crops, including advances in potato farming. His work on improving potato crops to resist parasites and endure cold climates helped diversify crop resilience, addressing various environmental challenges faced by Indian farmers.

Building Agricultural Research Systems

Another key contribution was his leadership in strengthening India’s agricultural research and extension systems. Swaminathan helped establish numerous research institutes, agricultural universities, and Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs), creating one of the largest agricultural research networks in the world. This infrastructure played a critical role in enhancing agricultural productivity across the nation.

Global Integration of Agricultural Research

Swaminathan’s work also bridged the gap between Indian agricultural research and the global scientific community. He played a crucial role in the establishment of the International Crop Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) in Hyderabad, fostering international collaboration for sustainable farming practices.

Empowering Farmers Through Knowledge

Swaminathan’s contributions extended beyond scientific research to the empowerment of farmers. He founded the M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation (MSSRF) in 1988, which works to promote agricultural development through modern science, improving rural livelihoods.

Recognition

In recognition of his extraordinary contributions, the Government of India awarded M.S. Swaminathan the Bharat Ratna in 2024.