Art & Culture

Model Answer

1. Introduction

Sangam literature, composed between 300 BCE and 300 CE, offers profound insights into the political, social, and economic life of the Tamil region. It was transmitted orally and later codified, capturing the essence of the period through the works of various poets. This literature is invaluable for reconstructing the past and understanding the Tamil society’s connection to wider India.

2. Sangam Polity

Rule of Multiple Dynasties: Sangam texts like Patitrupathu chronicle the reigns of prominent Tamil dynasties—Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas. These texts provide a detailed political landscape, including wars, alliances, and territorial expansion.

Administrative Systems: Puranānūru and Pattinappalai offer rich descriptions of governance structures, highlighting the roles of kings, ministers, and officials. For instance, Puranānūru explains the duties of the king and administrators, while Pattinappalai mentions the custom officials at the Puhar seaport, showing how trade and taxation were managed.

3. Sangam Society

Religion and Culture: The dominant deity in Sangam literature is Murugan, the Tamil god, alongside others like Vishnu and Indra. Works like Silappadikaram depict a society influenced by diverse religious beliefs and cultural practices such as dance and music.

Social Hierarchy: According to Tolkappiyam, society was divided into four main classes: Arasar (rulers), Anthanar (priests), Vanigar (traders), and Vellar (agriculturists). This division reflects the structured nature of Sangam society.

Position of Women: Women were pivotal in Sangam society, contributing to literature. However, practices like Sati and societal norms regarding chastity also existed, as seen in the treatment of widows.

4. Sangam Economy

Agriculture and Crafts: The economy was primarily agrarian, with rice cultivation as the backbone. Tolkappiyam mentions the five-fold division of land. Crafts like weaving, metalwork, and carpentry were vital, as indicated in the vivid descriptions of Sangam poems.

Trade and Commerce: Trade flourished, with ports like Puhar and Musiri facilitating both internal and foreign trade. Yavanas (foreigners) traded gold and pepper, reflecting a well-organized commercial system.

5. Wider Impact of Sangam Literature

Religious and Geographical Knowledge: Sangam literature not only highlights Tamil religion but also references Northern epics like the Ramayana and Mahabharata. Geographical knowledge of India, including mentions of the Himalayas and the Ganges, can be found in these texts, illustrating the interconnectedness of regions during the period.

6. Conclusion

Sangam literature provides invaluable political, social, and economic insights into the Tamil region while offering glimpses of broader Indian contexts. Its enduring legacy enriches our understanding of ancient India, revealing the vibrant civilization of the Tamil people.

Model Answer

The introduction of new languages during the medieval period in India played a significant role in the growth of culture and literature, fostering a rich literary tradition. The key factors contributing to this development include the rise of regional identities, the spread of religious movements, and the political shifts during this era.

Key Factors for the Growth of New Languages

1. Emergence of Regional Entities: Following the Gupta period, regional kingdoms began to emerge, promoting the use of local languages instead of Sanskrit, which was previously dominant. This shift allowed for the development of languages that were more accessible to the masses, including the early forms of languages like Hindi, Marathi, and Bengali.
2. Decline of Sanskrit and Rise of Persian: With the rise of the Delhi Sultanate, Persian became the official language, contributing to the decline of Sanskrit literature. However, Persian itself flourished, influencing other languages and cultures.
3. Religious Movements: The Bhakti and Sufi movements, which emphasized devotion and personal connection with the divine, further popularized regional languages. These movements created new literary expressions in vernacular languages, breaking the dominance of Sanskrit.

Contributions to Literature

• Persian: Persian became a major literary language with writers like Amir Khusrau, who blended Persian literary traditions with Indian themes. Persian literature flourished in history writing, religious texts, and translations of Sanskrit works. It also influenced the development of languages like Punjabi and Kashmiri.
• Hindi: The growth of Hindi literature, in dialects such as Brajbhasha and Awadhi, reflected the rise of regionalism and devotion. Poets like Kabir and the Chishti Sufi saints contributed significantly to its development.
• Urdu: The fusion of Persian, Arabic, and local Indian dialects led to the creation of Urdu. Amir Khusrau’s contributions to the Urdu language marked the beginning of its literary tradition.
• Bengali and Marathi: Bengali literature flourished through Vaishnav Bhakti poetry, while Marathi, influenced by the Bhakti movement, became a tool for social reform, with poets like Sant Tukaram.

Conclusion

The introduction of these languages not only gave rise to literary forms but also helped express the diverse cultural, religious, and social realities of the medieval period. These languages became powerful tools for the masses, contributing to the expansion of literature and culture in India.