The accounts of Greek historians provide some of the earliest and most comprehensive descriptions of ancient India. There is indirect evidence from two epic poems, the Iliad and the Odyssey, written by Greek poet Homer and direct evidence from Greek historians who visited and wrote about India suchRead more
The accounts of Greek historians provide some of the earliest and most comprehensive descriptions of ancient India. There is indirect evidence from two epic poems, the Iliad and the Odyssey, written by Greek poet Homer and direct evidence from Greek historians who visited and wrote about India such as Megasthenes, Arrian, and Strabo.
Social conditions in ancient India:
- Patriarchy in Aryan culture: Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey mentions the principal traits of Aryan culture like male-dominated society, practice of burial of the dead body, cremation etc.
- Matriarchy in South: Megasthenes mentions about the Pandya kingdom, which was ruled by women and was celebrated for pearls.
- God worship: Megasthenes in his book “Indica” mentions about Heracles and Dionysus as Indian gods, the earliest description of the worship of Vishnu and Shiva respectively.
- Caste system: Megasthenes mentions the division of Indian society into seven distinct groups evident from the functioning of the caste system (occupations being hereditary in nature and restriction on intergroup marriages).
- Material culture: Arrian mentions the large number of cities, thus the Mauryan period witnessed rapid development of material culture in the Gangetic basin.
- Condition of women: Alexander’s historians provide us with important information about the sati system, the sale of girls in marketplaces by poor parents.
Economic conditions in ancient India
- During Vedic times: Homer’s texts represent agriculture and pastoralism as the principal sources of livelihood. The people domesticated horses, which were used for riding and for driving carts.
- Merchant associations during Mauryas: According to Strabo, apart from independent artisans, the armourers and shipbuilders were employed by the State and paid a wage. Most of the artisans either worked individually or as members of associations (shreni or puga).
- Agriculture during Mauryas: Megasthenes mentioned about the special class of farmers to cultivate the agricultural lands and formed the majority. The peasants were producing two crops in a year, which reflects the good fertility of land in early India.
- Irrigation during Mauryas: Megasthenes mentions rivers, which served the dual purpose of transport, navigation and irrigation. Megasthenes gives full credit to irrigation for the ever flourishing harvests of India.
- Trade and Commerce during Mauryas: Greek and Roman accounts of the first and second centuries mention many Indian ports and items of trade. The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea and Ptolemy’s Geography, both written in Greek, provide valuable data for the study of ancient geography and commerce. Further, there were well developed roads, which were used as trade routes.
While Greek accounts of ancient India do provide some valuable insights into the social and economic conditions of the time, they should be approached with caution and seen as one perspective among many as evident from the following examples:
- Megasthenes mentions the absence of slavery in India. Whereas, we know of a tax termed “vishti”, which was forced labour in lieu of tax. Kautilya also described different kinds of slaves.
- Megasthenes claims that there was absence of private land as all land belonged to the State whereas Arthaśāstra of Kautilya refers to the land grants of various types such as Brahmadeya, Devdana, Agrahara.
To gain a more complete understanding of ancient Indian society, it is important to consult a range of sources, including Indian texts and archaeological evidence.
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Features of the 20th Century in England: 1. Social Changes: The suffragette movement led to women gaining the right to vote in 1918, a pivotal moment captured in Emmeline Pankhurst’s autobiography. Post-World War II, the creation of the National Health Service (NHS) in 1948 revolutionized healthcareRead more
Features of the 20th Century in England:
1. Social Changes: The suffragette movement led to women gaining the right to vote in 1918, a pivotal moment captured in Emmeline Pankhurst’s autobiography. Post-World War II, the creation of the National Health Service (NHS) in 1948 revolutionized healthcare, a change vividly described in medical professional and author Henry Marsh’s memoir, “Do No Harm.”
2. World Wars: Both World Wars had a profound impact on England. In “Goodbye to All That,” Robert Graves provides a personal account of the horrors of World War I. The Blitz during World War II, which devastated London, is memorably depicted in Graham Greene’s novel “The End of the Affair.”
3. Technological Advancements: The rise of television and radio transformed entertainment and information dissemination. The advent of the internet in the late 20th century revolutionized communication, as chronicled in “The Innovators” by Walter Isaacson, which highlights British computer pioneer Alan Turing.
4. Cultural Shifts: The cultural revolution of the 1960s, epitomized by The Beatles, changed music and social norms. Ian MacDonald’s book “Revolution in the Head” explores The Beatles’ influence on music and culture. The liberalization of attitudes toward sex and the rise of the counterculture are captured in works like “The Doors of Perception” by Aldous Huxley.
5. Immigration and Multiculturalism: The influx of immigrants from the Commonwealth countries after World War II reshaped England’s cultural landscape. Zadie Smith’s novel “White Teeth” offers a vivid portrayal of multicultural life in London, weaving together the stories of immigrant families.
6. Political Developments: The decline of the British Empire and the rise of neoliberal policies are central themes in the history of 20th-century England. Margaret Thatcher’s tenure as Prime Minister, marked by significant economic and social policies, is critically examined in works like “Thatcher” by Charles Moore.
Writing Style and Structure by Modern Writers:
1. Stream of Consciousness: Virginia Woolf’s “Mrs. Dalloway” follows the protagonist’s inner thoughts throughout a single day, revealing deep psychological insights. The novel’s fluid narrative mimics the natural flow of thoughts, providing a rich, immersive experience.
2. Fragmented Structure: T.S. Eliot’s poem “The Waste Land” is a prime example of fragmented structure. Its disjointed narrative and complex allusions reflect the post-World War I disillusionment and cultural fragmentation. Similarly, James Joyce’s “Ulysses” employs a non-linear narrative to explore the inner lives of its characters.
3. Experimentation with Form: George Orwell’s “1984” combines dystopian fiction with political commentary, creating a chilling vision of a totalitarian future. Aldous Huxley’s “Brave New World” blends science fiction with social critique, exploring the implications of technological advancement on society.
4. Focus on Subjectivity: Woolf’s “To the Lighthouse” delves deeply into the subjective experiences of its characters, emphasizing their perceptions and inner lives. The novel’s stream of consciousness technique provides a nuanced portrayal of human consciousness.
5. Minimalist and Sparse Prose: Samuel Beckett’s “Waiting for Godot” is characterized by its minimalist dialogue and sparse setting, reflecting themes of existentialism and human isolation. Later writers like J.G. Ballard in “Crash” used sparse prose to convey the alienation of modern life.
6. Themes of Disillusionment and Fragmentation: Post-World War literature often grapples with disillusionment. Evelyn Waugh’s “Brideshead Revisited” explores the impact of war on the British aristocracy, while William Golding’s “Lord of the Flies” examines the descent into savagery in the absence of societal norms.
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