Federalism is a political system dividing power between a central government and autonomous regional units promoting decentralized governance and representation.

“Coming together” federations unite independent units while “holding together” federations unify diverse groups within a state.”Coming together” and “holding together” federations differ in formation, power distribution and central state relations reflecting distinct unity paths.

Key differences between the two types of federations – 

1. Formation – in “Coming together” independent states voluntarily merge, surrendering some sovereignty to form a unified federal entity ( U.S.A ) whereas in “holding together” central government devolves power to diverse regions or groups, maintaining unity amidst cultural differences ( India ).
2. Distribution of power – states in “Coming together” federations typically possess equal constitutional powers ( Switzerland ) whereas in “Holding together” federations grant varying levels of autonomy with select regions enjoying special privileges ( Spain ).
3. Right to Secede – states in “Coming together” federations often reserve the right to secede voluntarily ( Australia ) whereas in “Holding together” federations feature an indissoluble union prohibiting states from seceding unilaterally ( Belgium ).

Coming together and holding together federations differ in formation, power distribution and state autonomy reflecting distinct approaches to managing unity and diversity with the former emphasizing voluntary cooperation and the latter maintaining central control.

Indeed, the foundational theories of early sociologists like Marx, Durkheim and Weber remain relevant in modern times with applications in Indian society.

Karl Marx – 

1. Marx’s class struggle – rich vs. poor where workers (proletariat) fight against exploitation by the wealthy (bourgeoisie) seen in modern wage gaps, outsourcing and gig economies.
2. Marx’s alienation – feeling disconnected from work, self and society due to exploitation seen in modern gig workers, automation and repetitive jobs lacking meaning.
3. Marx’s commodification of labor – treating workers as products to buy and sell seen in modern temporary jobs, zero hour contracts and gig economies.

Emile Durkheim –

1. Durkheim’s social solidarity – shared values, norms and rituals unite society seen in modern India’s communal celebrations (e.g. Diwali, Holi) promoting collective identity.
2. Durkheim’s division of labor – specialized roles increase efficiency but can lead to isolation. Modern examples of assembly line workers, IT professionals and medical specialists illustrating interdependence.
3. Durkheim’s anomie – social disorder and normlessness due to rapid change seen in modern examples of urbanization, social media chaos and economic instability leading to feelings of disorientation.

Max Weber –

1. Weber’s bureaucratic rationalization – efficient, rule based organizations prioritize logic over human values. Modern examples of Amazon’s automated warehouses, government red tape and corporate hierarchies.
2. Weber’s Protestant ethic – hard work, thrift and discipline as moral virtues, still evident in modern capitalist societies e.g. Silicon Valley’s work culture.
3. Weber’s traditional authority – power derived from custom, heritage and social status. Modern examples of monarchies (British Royal Family), tribal leaders and family owned businesses (e.g. Walmart’s Walton family).

Marxism’s alienation theory posits that capitalism disconnects individuals from their humanity, creative labor and fellow beings resulting in four types of alienation i.e. from labor, product, others and human potential, stifling self realization and freedom.

Key aspects of Alienation –

1. In Marx’s alienation theory, alienation of labor occurs when workers are disconnected from their creative potential becoming commodities exploited for profit, losing control and meaning.
2. Marx’s alienation from product occurs when workers do not own or control the goods/services they produce, separating them from their creative output and intellectual property.
3. Marx’s alienation from others arises when capitalist competition and wage labor replace cooperative relationships, isolating individuals and converting social interactions into market transactions and exploitation.
4. Marx’s alienation from human potential occurs when capitalism stifles individuals creative freedom, autonomy and self realization reducing them to specialized, mechanized labor, hindering personal growth and fulfillment.

Karl Marx’s alienation theory still holds truth today. Modern issues like gig work, social media and automation continue to disconnect people from their creativity, community and true potential, fueling feelings of isolation and disempowerment.

Marx’s dialectical materialism posits that societal development results from conflicting forces (thesis and antithesis) leading to transformative synthesis. This process is driven by class struggle and material conditions where economic systems (base) shape cultural and political institutions (superstructure), ultimately propelling historical change.

Key aspects of theory – 

1. In Indian society, class struggle manifests as contradictions between exploiters (bourgeoisie/capitalists) and exploited (proletariat/workers), perpetuating inequality and fueling resistance notably between affluent elites and impoverished masses, dalits, and marginalized groups.
2. In Indian society, material conditions refer to economic structures (base) shaping social relations including poverty, unemployment, land ownership and access to resources influencing class dynamics, exploitation and social change.
3. In Indian society, base (economic systems like capitalism and feudalism shapes superstructure (politics, culture, institutions), where economic interests influence governance, social norms and cultural narratives, perpetuating dominance and inequality.
4. In Indian society, alienation manifests as disconnection between individuals and their labor, livelihoods and humanity fueled by exploitative systems such as caste based oppression, wage slavery and capitalist drudgery.

Criticism – 

1. Marx’s dialectical materialism oversimplifies Indian society’s complexities by reducing diverse castes to binary class categories, neglecting non economic factors like culture , religion and overlooking regional variations and nuanced social dynamics.
2. Marx’s dialectical materialism faces criticism for cultural reductionism as it prioritizes economic determinism over cultural narratives, overlooks India’s diverse social fabric and reduces complex cultural identities to economic classes.

Marx’s dialectical materialism remains relevant in the present world, illuminating struggles against income inequality, neoliberal exploitation , environmental degradation and informing movements for social justice, labor rights and democratic socialism.

Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) established in 1969 has achieved remarkable milestones including launching over 350 satellites, Mars Orbiter Mission and Chandrayaan. With a budget of ₹13,700 crores (2022-2023) and a workforce of 16,000+, ISRO continues to advance India’s space program.

Objectives – 

1. Investigate celestial bodies, planets and galaxies through manned and unmanned missions, advancing scientific knowledge.
2. Study celestial phenomena, astronomical events and cosmic processes through research, observations and experiments.
3. Design, develop and demonstrate innovative space based technologies, systems and products for societal benefits.
4. Utilize space technology for societal benefits including communication, navigation, remote sensing, weather forecasting and resource management.
5. Collaborate with global space agencies, sharing resources, expertise and knowledge to advance space exploration.

ISRO’s achievements include launching over 350 satellites, Mars Orbiter Mission (Mangalyaan), Chandrayaan 1 and 2, GSLV Mk III, reusable launch technology and numerous Earth observation and communication satellites, showcasing India’s space prowess.

Its facilities and centers include Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre (VSSC), Satish Dhawan Space Centre (SDSC), ISRO Satellite Centre (ISAC), Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre (LPSC) and Space Applications Centre (SAC), driving space research and development.Future plans include Gaganyaan (manned spaceflight), Chandrayaan 3 (lunar landing), Aditya L1 (solar mission), Shukrayaan 1 (Venus orbiter), Indian Space Station and reusable launch vehicles, advancing India’s space capabilities.

ISRO collaborates with global space agencies like NASA, ESA, Roscosmos and CNES on projects such as Mars exploration, space science, human spaceflight and satellite launches, fostering international cooperation.