Examine critically how the US-Soviet duopoly was challenged by the establishment of the European Union during the post-war era.
The League of Nations came into existence on January 1oth 1920, with the main aim being to settle international disputes before they ever got out of trouble. The League of Nations though it attained small initial success, by the end of the 1940s the league practically became dysfunctional. The biggeRead more
The League of Nations came into existence on January 1oth 1920, with the main aim being to settle international disputes before they ever got out of trouble. The League of Nations though it attained small initial success, by the end of the 1940s the league practically became dysfunctional. The biggest failure of the league was its inability to prevent world war II. The United Nations was formed in 1945, after the war, in order to do what the league failed i.e to prevent future wars. In 75 years of its existence the league was partly successful in preventing major wars -its main objective- but also has its fair share of issues too.
Success Of United Nations In Comparison To League Of Nations
- Wide membership: The biggest positive for united nations which helped in its smooth functioning is its wide multilateralism. The United Nations today consists of 193 members and has been widely accepted by all sovereign states giving it legitimacy the league lacked. Even at its peak, the League had only 55 nations and major powers of the day like the USA were not part of the league.
- Power to take military sanction: League of nations lacked its own police force which was not the case with the UN. For example, when Italy invaded Abyssinia, the League denounced Italy as the aggressor but failed to stop the invasion. UN having a strong UN peacekeeping force and its charter mandating that all members must comply with UNSC decree in case of military action has been successful in resolving conflicts like the Suez crisis, Korean War, Gulf war, etc.
- One of the main reasons why the League failed was the way its charter was drafted. The League did not include all the major powers of the day. The UN particularly UNSC included all five major military powers of the day and providing them with veto powers has ensured that these major powers will never go to war against one another.
- Normative power of UN: One area which attributed more success to the UN than the League was its normative power. The active presence of the UN in the world through its different missions has resolved disputes and inhibited escalation of conflict. The best example of UN normative power keeping the peace is in the case of Israel-Syria, Iraq-Kuwait.
- Scope of UN mandate: Both league and UN were formed with very simple objectives i.e to maintain peace and to encourage international cooperation. But the UN was more successful in fulfilling these objectives because of the scope or wide range of powers it was given. The UN mandate not only asks it to prevent conflicts but also empowers the organization to carry out state-building efforts, support civilians, protection of human rights, and more. This wide mandate has enabled the UN to function more effectively.
- Prevention of Nuclear proliferation: One of the biggest successes of the UN is to prevent nuclear proliferation to a vast extent. The Non-Proliferation treaty (NPT) regime helped establish shared understandings of what was considered prestigious, legitimate, or delegitimize, and states thereby chose to disarm rather than be classified as rogue nations by the international community.
- Human rights as main thrust: UN has been concerned with human rights violations across the globe especially post-cold war, which is another marked departure from the league of nations that was unable to prevent Nazi persecution of jews. UN operates under the “responsibility to protect” principle, where it can intervene to protect civilians from genocide, ethnic cleansing, war crimes, etc when the state has failed to fulfill this function.
Issues With United Nations
- Despite taking collective security actions to tackle conflicts, UNSC has been criticized for being undemocratic, and for upholding procedures that impede robust action in important situations where international law has been violated but the P5 disagrees, such as in Syria.
- Another issue is with the way the UN had dealt with P5 members when they themselves violated the UNSC decisions. For example, the US invasion of Iraq, or the weak oversight it had on the US-led strike on Iraq in 1990.
- Another issue with the main mandate of the UN i.e keeping the peace is the increased role of the UN peacekeeping force from keeping the peace to enforcing peace. But UN peacekeeping forces are not equipped to handle this increased role.
- UN operations are an ideal of liberal democratic peace, where aspects like democratization, rule of law, and economic restructuring were promoted. But this has been a hindrance to its success because it is disregarding the state’s right to choose its political, or economic, and cultural system. The best example of this is the UN operation in Afghanistan.
- Some of the glaring failures of the UN were the failure to stop the Rwandan genocide, the Srebrenica massacre, and the inactions and paralysis of the UN in a number of ongoing crises like Russia’s takeover of Crimea, Israel-Palestine conflict, etc.
Despite its failures, the history of the UN has shown that P5 and other member countries more often than not agree on important resolutions. The UN so far has shown the ability to adapt and reinvent itself in line with emerging global challenges.
See less
Emergence of the European Union as a Counterweight to the US-Soviet Duopoly In the post-war period, the European Union (EU) emerged as a significant actor on the global stage, aiming to provide a counterweight to the US-Soviet duopoly. This development marked a shift in international relations and hRead more
Emergence of the European Union as a Counterweight to the US-Soviet Duopoly
In the post-war period, the European Union (EU) emerged as a significant actor on the global stage, aiming to provide a counterweight to the US-Soviet duopoly. This development marked a shift in international relations and had implications for global power dynamics.
1. Origins and Objectives of European Integration
Post-War Reconstruction and Unity: After World War II, Europe faced the challenge of reconstruction and economic recovery. The European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) was established in 1951, followed by the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1957, as part of the broader European integration process. These initiatives aimed to foster economic cooperation and prevent future conflicts by promoting interdependence among European nations.
Political and Economic Stability: The primary goal was to ensure political and economic stability in Europe. By creating a single market and removing trade barriers, European nations sought to enhance their collective economic strength and political cohesion, reducing the influence of external superpowers.
2. The EU as a Diplomatic and Economic Counterweight
Strategic Autonomy: The EU aimed to assert its strategic autonomy in global affairs, seeking to balance the dominance of the US and the Soviet Union. This involved developing a unified foreign policy and defense posture, although this objective has been partially achieved due to varied national interests within the EU.
Economic Power: The EU became a significant economic counterweight to the US and the Soviet Union. The establishment of the Single European Market in 1993 and the introduction of the euro in 1999 enhanced Europe’s economic integration and global economic influence.
3. Challenges and Limitations
Diverse National Interests: The EU faced challenges in achieving a unified foreign policy due to diverse national interests among its member states. This has often led to fragmented approaches in addressing global issues and asserting its position on the world stage.
Military and Security Limitations: The EU’s capacity to act as a military counterweight has been limited. While the Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP) aims to enhance defense capabilities, the EU relies heavily on NATO, led by the US, for security and defense matters.
4. Recent Developments and Examples
Brexit and its Implications: The United Kingdom’s departure from the EU in 2020 (Brexit) has affected the EU’s role as a counterweight. The UK’s exit has impacted the EU’s internal cohesion and its ability to project power and influence globally.
EU’s Role in Global Diplomacy: The EU has increasingly taken a proactive role in global diplomacy, as seen in its involvement in climate change negotiations (e.g., the Paris Agreement) and trade agreements with various countries. The EU’s regulatory power, exemplified by its General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR), also showcases its influence on global standards.
Geopolitical Tensions: The rise of new geopolitical challenges, such as China’s Belt and Road Initiative and Russia’s actions in Ukraine, has tested the EU’s ability to act as a cohesive counterweight. The EU has had to navigate complex relationships with these emerging global powers while balancing its internal and external policies.
5. Future Prospects
Enhancing Strategic Autonomy: The EU continues to seek ways to enhance its strategic autonomy through initiatives such as the European Defence Fund and PESCO (Permanent Structured Cooperation). These efforts aim to improve the EU’s defense capabilities and reduce reliance on external powers.
Integration and Cohesion: Future prospects for the EU’s role as a counterweight will depend on its ability to achieve greater integration and cohesion among member states, as well as to adapt to shifting global power dynamics and emerging challenges.
In conclusion, the emergence of the European Union as a counterweight to the US-Soviet duopoly represented a significant shift in global power dynamics, aimed at enhancing Europe’s political and economic influence. Despite facing challenges related to diverse national interests and military limitations, the EU has made strides in global diplomacy and economic power. The ongoing evolution of global geopolitics will continue to shape the EU’s role on the world stage.
See less