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Home/upsc: world after 1945

Mains Answer Writing Latest Questions

Pranav Shah
  • 1
Pranav ShahLearner
Asked: July 12, 2024In:
  • 1

Talk about the objectives behind the creation of the Arab League and evaluate how well it has protected the interests of the Arab countries.

upsc: world after 1945
  1. Pritma Sharma
    Pritma Sharma Begginer

    Arab League is a regional organization formed in Cairo on 22nd march 1945 following the adoption of Alexandria protocol in 1944. Officially known as the League of the Arab world it started with six members and now consists of 22 member states located in Africa and West Asia apart from five observerRead more

    Arab League is a regional organization formed in Cairo on 22nd march 1945 following the adoption of Alexandria protocol in 1944. Officially known as the League of the Arab world it started with six members and now consists of 22 member states located in Africa and West Asia apart from five observer states including India. The league was formed to design programs and promote interests of the Arab world.

    Aims Of Arab League

    1. The League’s main goal is to “draw closer the relations between member states and coordinate collaboration between them, to safeguard their independence and sovereignty, and to consider in a general way the affairs and interests of the Arab countries.
    2. To strengthen and coordinate the political, cultural, economic, and social programs of its members and to mediate disputes among them or between them and third parties.
    3. The signing on April 13, 1950, of an agreement on joint defence and economic cooperation, also committed the signatories to coordination of military defence measures.

    Role Of Arab League In Safeguarding The Interests Of The Arab Nation In Political Sphere

    1. At the Cairo Summit of 1964, the Arab League initiated the creation of an organisation representing the Palestinian people. The first Palestinian National Council convened in East Jerusalem on 29 May 1964.
    2. The Palestinian Liberation Organization was founded during this meeting on 2 June 1964. Palestine was shortly admitted into the Arab League, represented by the PLO. Today, the State of Palestine is a full member of the Arab League.
    3. At the Beirut Summit on 28 March 2002, the league adopted the Arab Peace Initiative, a Saudi-inspired peace plan for the Arab–Israeli conflict.
    4. The Peace Initiative was again endorsed in 2007 in the Riyadh Summit. In July 2007, the Arab League sent a mission, consisting of the Jordanian and Egyptian foreign ministers, to Israel to promote the initiative.
    5. On 15 April 2018, in response to the Turkish invasion of northern Syria aimed at ousting U.S.-backed Syrian Kurds from the enclave of Afrin, the Arab League passed a resolution calling on Turkish forces to withdraw from Afrin.
    6. In September 2019, the Arab League condemned Benjamin Netanyahu’s plans to annex the eastern portion of the occupied West Bank known as the Jordan Valley.
    7. The Arab League met in Cairo on 12 October 2019 to discuss the Turkish offensive into northeastern Syria. Upon meeting, its member states voted to condemn the Turkish offensive, dubbing it both an ‘invasion’ and an ‘aggression’ against an Arab state.

    In Economic Sphere

    1. One of the major economic achievements of the league was the building of an Arab gas pipeline that will transport Egyptian and Iraqi gas to Jordan, Syria, Lebanon, and Turkey.
    2. Through an agreement of The economic council of Arab league, the council of Arab Economic Unity was founded in 1964. The council objective was to Organize and consolidate economic relations among the States of the Arab League on bases that are consistent with the natural and historical links among them.
    3. The “Greater Arab Free Trade Area” (GAFTA) is a pan-Arab free trade zone that came into existence in 1997. The members participate in 96% of the total internal Arab trade, and 95% with the rest of the world.
    4. Besides this The Arab League has been a little more effective at lower levels, such as shaping school curricula, preserving manuscripts and translating modern technical terminology. It has helped to create a regional telecommunications union.

    Limitations Of Arab League

    The Arab League’s effectiveness has been severely hampered by divisions among member states since its inception.

    1. During the Cold War, some members were Soviet-oriented while others fell within the Western camp. There has been rivalry over leadership, notably between Egypt and Iraq.
    2. Then there have been the hostilities between traditional monarchies – such as Saudi Arabia, Jordan and Morocco – and new republics, or “revolutionary” states such as Egypt Syria Iraq, and Libya.
    3. The league was severely tested by the US-led attack on Saddam Hussein’s Iraq, with some backing the war, some opposing it and others standing on the sidelines.
    4. Because decisions made by the Arab League are binding only on members who voted for them, these divisions have in effect crippled the league in the sphere of “high politics”.
    5. Economical achievements within members have been low in the league’s history, other smaller Arab Organizations have achieved more than the league has, such as the GCC.
    6. The league failed to coordinate foreign, defence or economic policies, rendering core league documents such as the Treaty of Joint Defence and Economic Cooperation and key bodies such as the Joint Defence Council completely ineffectual.

    More recently the League has shown a greater sense of purpose since the “Arab spring” uprisings in early 2011. It backed UN action against Muammar Gaddafi’s forces in Libya. It also suspended Syria over its repressions of nationwide protests. In light of rising terrorism and extremism in the region, the need of the hour is to put aside all differences and coordinate with each other to create an environment free of extremism and ensure pan Arab unity in real sense.

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Sanjay Nambiar
  • 1
Sanjay NambiarBegginer
Asked: July 12, 2024In:
  • 1

Compared to the League of Nations, how successful has the UN been in settling conflicts in the post-World War II era?

upsc: world after 1945
  1. Rishi Sharma
    Rishi Sharma Begginer

    The League of Nations came into existence on January 1oth 1920, with the main aim being to settle international disputes before they ever got out of trouble. The League of Nations though it attained small initial success, by the end of the 1940s the league practically became dysfunctional. The biggeRead more

    The League of Nations came into existence on January 1oth 1920, with the main aim being to settle international disputes before they ever got out of trouble. The League of Nations though it attained small initial success, by the end of the 1940s the league practically became dysfunctional. The biggest failure of the league was its inability to prevent world war II. The United Nations was formed in 1945, after the war, in order to do what the league failed i.e to prevent future wars. In 75 years of its existence the league was partly successful in preventing major wars -its main objective- but also has its fair share of issues too.

    Success Of United Nations In Comparison To League Of Nations

    1. Wide membership: The biggest positive for united nations which helped in its smooth functioning is its wide multilateralism. The United Nations today consists of 193 members and has been widely accepted by all sovereign states giving it legitimacy the league lacked. Even at its peak, the League had only 55 nations and major powers of the day like the USA were not part of the league.
    2. Power to take military sanction: League of nations lacked its own police force which was not the case with the UN. For example, when Italy invaded Abyssinia, the League denounced Italy as the aggressor but failed to stop the invasion. UN having a strong UN peacekeeping force and its charter mandating that all members must comply with UNSC decree in case of military action has been successful in resolving conflicts like the Suez crisis, Korean War, Gulf war, etc.
    3. One of the main reasons why the League failed was the way its charter was drafted. The League did not include all the major powers of the day. The UN particularly UNSC included all five major military powers of the day and providing them with veto powers has ensured that these major powers will never go to war against one another.
    4. Normative power of UN: One area which attributed more success to the UN than the League was its normative power. The active presence of the UN in the world through its different missions has resolved disputes and inhibited escalation of conflict. The best example of UN normative power keeping the peace is in the case of Israel-Syria, Iraq-Kuwait.
    5. Scope of UN mandate: Both league and UN were formed with very simple objectives i.e to maintain peace and to encourage international cooperation. But the UN was more successful in fulfilling these objectives because of the scope or wide range of powers it was given. The UN mandate not only asks it to prevent conflicts but also empowers the organization to carry out state-building efforts, support civilians, protection of human rights, and more. This wide mandate has enabled the UN to function more effectively.
    6. Prevention of Nuclear proliferation: One of the biggest successes of the UN is to prevent nuclear proliferation to a vast extent. The Non-Proliferation treaty (NPT) regime helped establish shared understandings of what was considered prestigious, legitimate, or delegitimize, and states thereby chose to disarm rather than be classified as rogue nations by the international community.
    7. Human rights as main thrust: UN has been concerned with human rights violations across the globe especially post-cold war, which is another marked departure from the league of nations that was unable to prevent Nazi persecution of jews. UN operates under the “responsibility to protect” principle, where it can intervene to protect civilians from genocide, ethnic cleansing, war crimes, etc when the state has failed to fulfill this function.

    Issues With United Nations

    1. Despite taking collective security actions to tackle conflicts, UNSC has been criticized for being undemocratic, and for upholding procedures that impede robust action in important situations where international law has been violated but the P5 disagrees, such as in Syria.
    2. Another issue is with the way the UN had dealt with P5 members when they themselves violated the UNSC decisions. For example, the US invasion of Iraq, or the weak oversight it had on the US-led strike on Iraq in 1990.
    3. Another issue with the main mandate of the UN i.e keeping the peace is the increased role of the UN peacekeeping force from keeping the peace to enforcing peace. But UN peacekeeping forces are not equipped to handle this increased role.
    4. UN operations are an ideal of liberal democratic peace, where aspects like democratization, rule of law, and economic restructuring were promoted. But this has been a hindrance to its success because it is disregarding the state’s right to choose its political, or economic, and cultural system. The best example of this is the UN operation in Afghanistan.
    5. Some of the glaring failures of the UN were the failure to stop the Rwandan genocide, the Srebrenica massacre, and the inactions and paralysis of the UN in a number of ongoing crises like Russia’s takeover of Crimea, Israel-Palestine conflict, etc.

    Despite its failures, the history of the UN has shown that P5 and other member countries more often than not agree on important resolutions. The UN so far has shown the ability to adapt and reinvent itself in line with emerging global challenges.

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Shivam tiwari
  • 0
Shivam tiwariLearner
Asked: June 17, 2024In:
  • 0

Provide a brief history of the Non-Aligned Movement and discuss its applicability today.

upsc: world after 1945
  1. Shyamlal Sharma
    Shyamlal Sharma Learner

    Answer: The Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) was formed at the 1st Belgrade Conference of 1961 with its prominent leaders being Jawaharlal Nehru (India), Josip Broz Tito (Yugoslavia) and Gamal Abdel Nassar (Egypt). Originating with a participation of 25 members, it has become the biggest independent and iRead more

    Answer: The Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) was formed at the 1st Belgrade Conference of 1961 with its prominent leaders being Jawaharlal Nehru (India), Josip Broz Tito (Yugoslavia) and Gamal Abdel Nassar (Egypt). Originating with a participation of 25 members, it has become the biggest independent and informal association out of the United Nations, comprising 120 member nations and 17 observers. About the Non-Aligned Movement:

    • Immediate reason for its formation: It was established due to the emergence of two blocs, one led by the USA and the other by the Soviet Union following the Second World War.
    • Roles and objectives:
      • It was not to stay neutral on issues and challenges confronting the international community, but to adopt common and joint positions based on merits of each case.
      • It was committed to fight against colonialism, imperialism, racism and apartheid, and to create a new international economic order which would be fair and equitable and safeguard the interests of developing countries.
    • Crisis phase and evolution: The end of the Cold War and disintegration of the Soviet Union in 1991 put a question mark on its relevance as its initial objectives of de-colonisation and end of apartheid had been largely realized by then.
    • New role of the NAM: Ensuring peace, security and economic development of developing countries has emerged as the new mantra to be pursued by the Movement.

    In present times, the NAM is relevant in the following ways:

    • Integral part of foreign policy: Many developing countries like India still follow the NAM principles. The policy to avoid colonisation and imperialism continues to remain valid for all small and developing countries.
    • South-South cooperation: It raises issues that are of major concern for the global South. This will help democratise the international system to promote equality and peace all over the world.
    • Peaceful settlement of international disputes: The NAM can act as a platform to negotiate and conclude international disputes peacefully, thereby securing favourable decisions for each member.
    • Preservation of territorial integrity and sovereignty: The NAM reiterates the preservation of territorial integrity and state sovereignty. It stands as a unifying force against the expansionist policies of big powers.

    Despite its relevance, the NAM faces many challenges like poor cooperation between the member states, being merely a forum for talk shop, lack of initiatives on emerging security concerns such as global terrorism etc. Therefore, there is an urgent need to strengthen the NAM and the member countries need to reaffirm their commitment to it, so that the NAM can play a prominent and leading role in the current international scenario.

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Eshan Nair
  • 0
Eshan NairBegginer
Asked: July 6, 2024In:
  • 0

Analyze the factors that allowed Japan to become a major player in the world economy after World War II. What do other countries hoping for an economic rebound learn from this?

upsc: world after 1945
  1. Tejas Rao
    Tejas Rao Begginer

    Japan's re-emergence post-WWII is one of the most remarkable economic recoveries in modern history. Devastated by war, Japan transformed itself into an economic powerhouse by the latter half of the 20th century through strategic policies, innovation, and international support. In Japan, industrial pRead more

    Japan’s re-emergence post-WWII is one of the most remarkable economic recoveries in modern history. Devastated by war, Japan transformed itself into an economic powerhouse by the latter half of the 20th century through strategic policies, innovation, and international support. In Japan, industrial production decreased to 27.6% (1946) of the pre-war level, but recovered in 1951 and reached 350% in 1960.

    Japan’s post-WWII re-emergence as an economic powerhouse was made possible through:

    • American Assistance: The United States provided financial aid and expertise to rehabilitate Japan’s war-torn economy. This acted as a lifeline for Japanese industries, aiding in both reconstruction and the modernization of key industrial sectors.
    • Land Reforms: The Japanese government redistributed agricultural land from feudal landowners to tenant farmers. This eliminated exploitative landlord-tenant relations and boosted agricultural productivity, giving rise to a financially stable middle class that spurred domestic consumption.
    • Zaibatsu Dissolution: Post-WWII, the traditional industrial conglomerates known as Zaibatsu were disbanded to reduce concentrated economic power. This move facilitated a more competitive and diversified economic landscape, where smaller enterprises could also thrive.
    • Export-Oriented Growth: Rather than focusing solely on domestic markets, Japan adopted an export-oriented growth strategy. Companies like Toyota and Sony became global giants by concentrating on quality and innovation, making “Made in Japan” a mark of excellence worldwide.
    • Technology and Innovation: The Japanese government, in collaboration with private enterprises, made significant investments in R&D. This led to technological breakthroughs, especially in the electronics and automotive sectors, giving competitive edge in international markets.
    • Quality Focus: Japanese companies became global leaders in quality assurance, with methodologies like Kaizen and Total Quality Management. Brands like Sony, Toyota, and Honda became synonymous with high quality and reliability, enhancing Japan’s global reputation.
    • Government-Industry Collaboration: Ministries like the Ministry of International Trade and Industry (MITI) played pivotal roles in shaping industrial policies. They provided targeted subsidies, facilitated technology transfers, and laid out long-term industrial roadmap.
    • Cultural Factors: Traits like hard work, discipline, and a strong sense of community are deeply embedded in Japanese culture. The collectivist ethos enabled companies to gain loyalty from employees, which was instrumental in achieving high levels of productivity and innovation.

    Lessons that can be gleaned for other nations seeking economic revival

    • Policy Coordination: Coordination between government bodies and industrial sectors can catalyze economic growth. Policy frameworks that incentivize domestic manufacturing and exports, like tax incentives and subsidies, can have a ripple effect on employment and GDP.
    • Adaptability: The capacity to adapt and reorient the economic model to capitalize on a nation’s strengths is crucial. For instance, developing countries rich in natural resources could focus on export-oriented strategies to globalize their products.
    • Technology Focus: Prioritizing innovation and R&D can provide a competitive edge in the global market. Tax incentives for R&D or direct government funding can drive technological advancements, making domestic industries more competitive.
    • Financial Support: A robust financial support system, including grants, low-interest loans, and venture capital, can help fledgling industries and start-ups grow. Early financial support can be the difference between failure and survival for many businesses.
    • Branding and Quality: Developing a reputation for high-quality products can dramatically improve a nation’s export potential. Quality certifications and adherence to international standards can go a long way in establishing a positive national brand.
    • Social Cohesion: A socially cohesive nation, where people identify with and support collective goals, can offer the political stability required for sustained economic growth. Public initiatives promoting social unity can strengthen community bonds and strengthen national development.
    • Sustainable Practices: Embracing sustainability not only benefits the environment but can also be economically rewarding. Eg: Investments in renewable energy can offer long term cost benefits, and sustainable practices can open new export markets focused on ecofriendly products.

    Japan’s post-WWII economic resurgence serves as an exemplary model for nations aiming for economic revival. Japan demonstrated that even a war-ravaged nation could ascend to economic prominence. Lessons drawn from Japan’s experience can offer invaluable insights for countries seeking a robust economic future.

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Varun Nayak
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Varun NayakBegginer
Asked: July 31, 2024In:
  • 0

Examine how the oil crises of the 1970s affected the political and economic climate of the world, as well as how the balance of power changed as a result.

upsc: world after 1945
  1. Adira Rajan
    Adira Rajan Begginer

    Impact of the Oil Crises of the 1970s on the Global Economic and Political Landscape and the Resulting Shift in the Balance of Power 1. Economic Impact a. Global Economic Recession: Oil Price Shocks: The oil crises of 1973 (following the Yom Kippur War) and 1979 (after the Iranian Revolution) led toRead more

    Impact of the Oil Crises of the 1970s on the Global Economic and Political Landscape and the Resulting Shift in the Balance of Power

    1. Economic Impact

    a. Global Economic Recession:

    • Oil Price Shocks: The oil crises of 1973 (following the Yom Kippur War) and 1979 (after the Iranian Revolution) led to dramatic increases in oil prices, from about $3 per barrel in 1972 to nearly $12 in 1974, and further spikes thereafter. These price shocks triggered severe inflation and economic slowdown globally.
    • Stagflation: The crises contributed to stagflation—a combination of high inflation and stagnant economic growth—particularly affecting advanced economies like the U.S. and Western Europe. This led to reduced consumer spending and increased unemployment rates.

    b. Energy Policies and Economic Adjustments:

    • Energy Conservation: The crises prompted major industrialized nations to implement energy conservation measures, such as fuel efficiency standards and alternative energy investments. For instance, the U.S. established the Strategic Petroleum Reserve (SPR) to mitigate future supply disruptions.
    • Economic Shifts: There was a shift towards deregulation and market-oriented policies as governments sought to address the economic challenges posed by high energy prices. This included measures to reduce dependence on oil imports and invest in alternative energy sources.

    2. Political Impact

    a. Influence of OPEC:

    • Increased Power of OPEC: The Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) emerged as a powerful political and economic force. By using oil as a political tool, OPEC members exerted substantial influence on global oil prices and international relations.
    • Middle Eastern Geopolitics: The crises highlighted the geopolitical importance of Middle Eastern countries, leading to greater involvement of global powers in the region’s politics and security issues.

    b. Realignment of Global Alliances:

    • Shift in Alliances: The crises led to realignments in global alliances, with the U.S. and its Western allies seeking to strengthen ties with oil-producing nations outside OPEC and exploring new geopolitical strategies.
    • Focus on Energy Security: Energy security became a central issue in international diplomacy, leading to new collaborations and agreements aimed at ensuring stable energy supplies and mitigating geopolitical risks.

    3. Resulting Shift in the Balance of Power

    a. Economic Power Dynamics:

    • Emergence of New Economic Powers: The oil crises contributed to a shift in economic power, with oil-rich nations like Saudi Arabia gaining substantial financial leverage. This wealth allowed them to influence global economic and political affairs.
    • Economic Challenges for Western Nations: The economic turmoil caused by the oil crises weakened the economic dominance of Western nations, leading to increased competition from emerging economies and altering global economic dynamics.

    b. Long-term Strategic Changes:

    • Geopolitical Strategies: The need to secure energy resources led to long-term strategic changes, including increased military and diplomatic engagements in the Middle East. For instance, the U.S. intensified its involvement in the region to secure oil supplies and counter Soviet influence during the Cold War.
    • Sustainable Energy Focus: The crises catalyzed a shift towards sustainable energy practices and technology development, influencing global energy policies and priorities for decades. For example, the push for renewable energy sources and climate change awareness gained momentum as a result.

    Recent Examples and Reflections:

    a. Modern Energy Markets:

    • Shale Revolution: The 2000s shale oil revolution in the U.S. significantly altered global oil markets, reducing dependency on Middle Eastern oil and impacting global power dynamics. This shift has influenced recent geopolitical and economic trends.

    b. Climate Change and Energy Transition:

    • Global Climate Agreements: The 1970s oil crises paved the way for a greater focus on climate change and renewable energy. Recent international agreements, such as the Paris Agreement, reflect a global commitment to transitioning away from fossil fuels and addressing climate change.

    In summary, the oil crises of the 1970s had profound economic and political impacts, leading to a global recession, a realignment of geopolitical alliances, and a shift in the balance of power. The crises highlighted the strategic importance of energy resources and influenced subsequent global energy policies, economic strategies, and international relations. The legacy of these crises continues to shape energy and geopolitical dynamics today.

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Chintan Trivedi
  • 0
Chintan TrivediBegginer
Asked: July 31, 2024In:
  • 0

Talk about the UN’s contribution to preserving world peace and security in the years following World War II. Analyze its achievements and shortcomings.

upsc: world after 1945
  1. Keshav Joshi
    Keshav Joshi Learner

    Role of the United Nations in Maintaining Global Peace and Security in the Post-War Period The United Nations (UN) was established in 1945 to foster international cooperation and prevent future conflicts after the devastation of World War II. Its role in maintaining global peace and security has beeRead more

    Role of the United Nations in Maintaining Global Peace and Security in the Post-War Period

    The United Nations (UN) was established in 1945 to foster international cooperation and prevent future conflicts after the devastation of World War II. Its role in maintaining global peace and security has been crucial but has also encountered various challenges and criticisms. This discussion evaluates the UN’s contributions, successes, and failures in the post-war era, incorporating recent examples for a comprehensive understanding.

    1. Role of the United Nations in Global Peace and Security

    1.1. Establishment and Framework

    UN Charter and Core Objectives: The UN Charter set forth the principles for international cooperation aimed at maintaining peace and security. The UN’s core organs include:

    Security Council: Responsible for addressing threats to peace and security, with authority to impose sanctions, authorize force, and deploy peacekeeping missions.
    General Assembly: Provides a platform for member states to discuss global issues and make recommendations.
    International Court of Justice (ICJ): Settles legal disputes between states and provides advisory opinions on international legal matters.
    1.2. Peacekeeping Missions

    Deployment of Peacekeepers: The UN has conducted numerous peacekeeping missions to stabilize conflict zones and support post-conflict reconstruction:

    United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus (UNFICYP): Established in 1964 to prevent a recurrence of fighting between Greek and Turkish Cypriots, and continues to monitor the ceasefire lines.
    United Nations Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in Mali (MINUSMA): Deployed in 2013 to support the stabilization of Mali and protect civilians amidst ongoing conflict and terrorism.
    1.3. Conflict Mediation and Diplomacy

    Facilitating Negotiations: The UN has played a key role in mediating conflicts and facilitating peace negotiations:

    Iran Nuclear Deal (2015): The UN, through the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), was instrumental in the negotiation and monitoring of the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA) to address Iran’s nuclear program.
    Colombian Peace Process: The UN supported the peace process between the Colombian government and the FARC, helping to monitor and verify the disarmament and reintegration of combatants.
    2. Evaluating Successes of the United Nations

    2.1. Effective Peacekeeping Operations

    Successes in Conflict Resolution: Certain UN peacekeeping missions have achieved significant successes:

    Cambodia (UNTAC): The UN Transitional Authority in Cambodia played a crucial role in ending the civil war and facilitating democratic elections in 1993, leading to the stabilization of the country.
    East Timor (UNTAET): The UN administered East Timor from 1999 to 2002, leading to its independence from Indonesia and establishing a stable government.
    2.2. Humanitarian and Development Initiatives

    Humanitarian Aid: The UN provides critical humanitarian assistance to affected populations:

    World Food Programme (WFP): The WFP has been instrumental in providing food aid to regions affected by crisis, including Yemen and Ukraine, where conflict and displacement have exacerbated food insecurity.
    UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR): Plays a vital role in assisting refugees and displaced persons, including efforts to support Rohingya refugees from Myanmar and Ukrainian refugees displaced by the 2022 invasion.
    2.3. Reforms and Innovations

    Reforms to Enhance Effectiveness: The UN has undertaken various reforms to improve its operations:

    Action for Peacekeeping (A4P): Launched in 2018, this initiative aims to enhance the performance and impact of peacekeeping missions, focusing on more robust mandates and better protection for peacekeepers.
    Women, Peace, and Security Agenda: The UN has promoted gender equality in peacekeeping and conflict resolution through initiatives like Resolution 1325, which emphasizes the role of women in peace processes.
    3. Evaluating Failures and Challenges

    3.1. Failures in Preventing Genocides and Mass Atrocities

    Inadequate Response to Atrocities: The UN has faced criticism for its failures in preventing or stopping genocides and large-scale violence:

    Rwanda Genocide (1994): The UN’s response to the genocide was widely criticized for its lack of intervention and failure to prevent the mass killings, despite early warnings and the presence of peacekeepers.
    Srebrenica Massacre (1995): UN peacekeepers failed to protect Bosnian Muslims during the Srebrenica massacre, resulting in significant loss of life.
    3.2. Geopolitical Constraints and Security Council Dynamics

    Veto Power and Inaction: The Security Council’s effectiveness is often hindered by the veto power of its five permanent members (US, UK, France, Russia, China), which can obstruct resolutions and interventions:

    Syrian Civil War: The UN Security Council’s inability to address the Syrian conflict effectively has been attributed to vetoes by Russia and China, limiting the UN’s ability to mediate and resolve the crisis.
    3.3. Resource Constraints and Operational Limitations

    Challenges in Implementation: UN missions frequently face challenges related to resource constraints and ambiguous mandates:

    Funding and Logistics: Peacekeeping operations often encounter issues with inadequate funding, logistical support, and political backing from member states, affecting their effectiveness.
    4. Recent Examples and Current Issues

    4.1. Ukraine Crisis: The UN has been involved in addressing the humanitarian impact of the conflict in Ukraine and condemning the invasion. However, its ability to mediate and resolve the conflict remains limited.

    4.2. Climate Change and Security: The UN has increasingly addressed climate change as a global security issue, exemplified by the Paris Agreement and initiatives like the UN Climate Action Summit, aiming to integrate environmental sustainability into peace and security agendas.

    Conclusion

    The United Nations has played a crucial role in maintaining global peace and security through peacekeeping missions, conflict mediation, and humanitarian aid. While it has achieved notable successes in stabilizing regions and providing critical assistance, it has also faced significant challenges, including failures in preventing mass atrocities and navigating geopolitical tensions. The UN continues to evolve, seeking to enhance its effectiveness and adapt to contemporary global challenges. Understanding its successes and limitations is essential for assessing its role in the international system.

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Mihir Jain
  • 0
Mihir JainBegginer
Asked: August 1, 2024In:
  • 0

Examine critically how the US-Soviet duopoly was challenged by the establishment of the European Union during the post-war era.

upsc: world after 1945
  1. Ekta Srivastava
    Ekta Srivastava Begginer

    Emergence of the European Union as a Counterweight to the US-Soviet Duopoly In the post-war period, the European Union (EU) emerged as a significant actor on the global stage, aiming to provide a counterweight to the US-Soviet duopoly. This development marked a shift in international relations and hRead more

    Emergence of the European Union as a Counterweight to the US-Soviet Duopoly

    In the post-war period, the European Union (EU) emerged as a significant actor on the global stage, aiming to provide a counterweight to the US-Soviet duopoly. This development marked a shift in international relations and had implications for global power dynamics.

    1. Origins and Objectives of European Integration

    Post-War Reconstruction and Unity: After World War II, Europe faced the challenge of reconstruction and economic recovery. The European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) was established in 1951, followed by the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1957, as part of the broader European integration process. These initiatives aimed to foster economic cooperation and prevent future conflicts by promoting interdependence among European nations.

    Political and Economic Stability: The primary goal was to ensure political and economic stability in Europe. By creating a single market and removing trade barriers, European nations sought to enhance their collective economic strength and political cohesion, reducing the influence of external superpowers.

    2. The EU as a Diplomatic and Economic Counterweight

    Strategic Autonomy: The EU aimed to assert its strategic autonomy in global affairs, seeking to balance the dominance of the US and the Soviet Union. This involved developing a unified foreign policy and defense posture, although this objective has been partially achieved due to varied national interests within the EU.

    Economic Power: The EU became a significant economic counterweight to the US and the Soviet Union. The establishment of the Single European Market in 1993 and the introduction of the euro in 1999 enhanced Europe’s economic integration and global economic influence.

    3. Challenges and Limitations

    Diverse National Interests: The EU faced challenges in achieving a unified foreign policy due to diverse national interests among its member states. This has often led to fragmented approaches in addressing global issues and asserting its position on the world stage.

    Military and Security Limitations: The EU’s capacity to act as a military counterweight has been limited. While the Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP) aims to enhance defense capabilities, the EU relies heavily on NATO, led by the US, for security and defense matters.

    4. Recent Developments and Examples

    Brexit and its Implications: The United Kingdom’s departure from the EU in 2020 (Brexit) has affected the EU’s role as a counterweight. The UK’s exit has impacted the EU’s internal cohesion and its ability to project power and influence globally.

    EU’s Role in Global Diplomacy: The EU has increasingly taken a proactive role in global diplomacy, as seen in its involvement in climate change negotiations (e.g., the Paris Agreement) and trade agreements with various countries. The EU’s regulatory power, exemplified by its General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR), also showcases its influence on global standards.

    Geopolitical Tensions: The rise of new geopolitical challenges, such as China’s Belt and Road Initiative and Russia’s actions in Ukraine, has tested the EU’s ability to act as a cohesive counterweight. The EU has had to navigate complex relationships with these emerging global powers while balancing its internal and external policies.

    5. Future Prospects

    Enhancing Strategic Autonomy: The EU continues to seek ways to enhance its strategic autonomy through initiatives such as the European Defence Fund and PESCO (Permanent Structured Cooperation). These efforts aim to improve the EU’s defense capabilities and reduce reliance on external powers.

    Integration and Cohesion: Future prospects for the EU’s role as a counterweight will depend on its ability to achieve greater integration and cohesion among member states, as well as to adapt to shifting global power dynamics and emerging challenges.

    In conclusion, the emergence of the European Union as a counterweight to the US-Soviet duopoly represented a significant shift in global power dynamics, aimed at enhancing Europe’s political and economic influence. Despite facing challenges related to diverse national interests and military limitations, the EU has made strides in global diplomacy and economic power. The ongoing evolution of global geopolitics will continue to shape the EU’s role on the world stage.

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Rajashree Shirke
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Rajashree ShirkeLearner
Asked: January 17, 2025In:
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Roadmap for Answer Writing 1. Introduction Briefly introduce the conflict’s nature (religious, political, and territorial). Mention the key factor that has sustained it (historical grievances, territorial disputes, and external influences). 2. Historical Factors Balfour Declaration (1917): Mention how the British government promised to establish a ...

upsc: world after 1945
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    Model Answer The multi-decade conflict between Israel and Palestine is deeply rooted in several historical, territorial, and political factors, making it difficult to resolve. Historical Factors Balfour Declaration (1917): This British declaration supported the establishment of a "national home forRead more

    Model Answer

    The multi-decade conflict between Israel and Palestine is deeply rooted in several historical, territorial, and political factors, making it difficult to resolve.

    Historical Factors

    • Balfour Declaration (1917): This British declaration supported the establishment of a “national home for the Jewish people” in Palestine, leading to large-scale Jewish immigration to the region. This provoked significant tension with the native Arab population, culminating in the 1936 Palestinian Arab Uprising .
    • Nakba (1948): The UN’s proposed partition plan in 1947 and the subsequent 1948 Arab-Israeli war resulted in the displacement of approximately 750,000 Palestinians. This event, known as the Nakba (“catastrophe”), remains a pivotal moment in Palestinian identity and is a constant source of resentment .

    Territorial Disputes

    • Indivisibility of Territory: Both Israelis and Palestinians claim the same land, particularly the area encompassing Jerusalem, which is sacred to both groups. This territorial claim is further complicated by Israel’s continued occupation of Palestinian territories, including the West Bank and Gaza after the wars of 1948 and 1967 .
    • Settlements: The construction of Israeli settlements in occupied territories, deemed illegal by international law, has fueled resentment and opposition from Palestinians, exacerbating tensions. These settlements have led to repeated uprisings such as the First Intifada in 1987 .

    Extremism and Violent Responses

    • Extremist Groups: Radical elements such as Hamas have hindered peace efforts through violent acts, including suicide bombings. The assassination of Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin by a Jewish extremist in 1995 further derailed peace negotiations after the Oslo Accords .

    Third-Party Influence

    • Foreign Interventions: External actors, such as the US and Iran, have exacerbated the conflict. The US’s support for Israel, influenced by the Jewish lobby, and Iran’s backing of Hamas have polarized the region, intensifying hostilities .
    • In conclusion, the conflict’s persistence is shaped by these complex historical, territorial, and external factors, with no easy path to resolution.
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Adheesh Raman
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Adheesh RamanLearner
Asked: February 15, 2025In:
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Roadmap for Answer Writing 1. Introduction Begin by setting the context of the question: discuss the aims of decolonization policies in the 20th century, including granting independence and ending colonial rule. Mention that while decolonization aimed to give African nations self-governance, its legacy ...

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    Model Answer Introduction The political instability in present-day Africa is deeply intertwined with the decolonization policies of the 20th century. These policies aimed at ending colonial rule and granting independence to African nations, yet their implementation led to several challenges that conRead more

    Model Answer

    Introduction

    The political instability in present-day Africa is deeply intertwined with the decolonization policies of the 20th century. These policies aimed at ending colonial rule and granting independence to African nations, yet their implementation led to several challenges that continue to affect the continent today.

    Historical Legacy: Artificial Borders and Ethnic Tensions

    A key factor contributing to political instability in Africa is the artificial borders drawn during the colonial era, which often ignored ethnic, cultural, and linguistic divisions. The decolonization process, rather than addressing these issues, solidified these boundaries. This has led to ongoing ethnic tensions and violent conflicts.
    Example: The 1994 genocide in Rwanda between the Hutus and Tutsis and the ethnic conflicts in Sudan and South Sudan are stark reminders of how colonial borders have exacerbated divisions.

    Weak Institutions and Governance Issues

    Decolonization often involved a rapid transition to independence without sufficient time to build strong institutions. As a result, many African countries inherited weak political and administrative structures, which led to governance failures.
    Example: Corruption and poor governance in Nigeria and political instability in the Democratic Republic of Congo highlight these challenges.

    Economic Dependency and Inequalities

    Colonial economies were designed to serve the interests of the colonial powers, leaving African nations with economies that were heavily dependent on exports and vulnerable to external influences. This dependency has hindered development and exacerbated social inequalities, leading to instability.
    Example: Resource-driven conflicts, such as those in Nigeria’s Niger Delta and the Democratic Republic of Congo, illustrate how economic inequalities contribute to instability.

    External Interference and Neocolonialism

    Decolonization did not end external influence. Foreign powers continue to manipulate political processes and exploit resources, perpetuating instability.
    Example: The intervention in Libya after Gaddafi’s fall and the exploitation of Congo’s resources by international corporations show the ongoing neocolonial impact.

    Conclusion

    While other internal factors, such as corruption and governance failures, contribute to Africa’s instability, the decolonization policies of the 20th century have played a central role in shaping the continent’s current political landscape. The legacy of colonial borders, weak institutions, and economic dependency continues to fuel political instability today.

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