Model Answer

Introduction

Tribal communities in India, historically isolated and self-sustained, have experienced profound changes due to industrialization, displacement, and government policies. With an estimated population of 104 million, tribals represent around 8.6% of India’s total population. As the most vulnerable demographic, their cultural integrity and socio-economic conditions have been significantly impacted by these forces over time.

Industrialization: Positive and Negative Effects

Industrialization in India, which began during British rule, has had both beneficial and detrimental effects on tribal communities. On the positive side, industries such as mining, manufacturing, and construction have created employment opportunities in tribal areas, offering some economic upliftment. Tribes like Meenas, Sugalis, and Lambadas have found work in these sectors, leading to improved living standards. Moreover, exposure to industries and migration has allowed tribal people to acquire new skills and broaden their horizons.

However, industrialization has also caused significant harm. The primary negative consequence is the displacement of tribal communities from their ancestral lands due to industrial projects. This has led to the loss of cultural identity, community cohesion, and traditional livelihoods. As tribes lose access to sacred lands and forests, their way of life is eroded. The influx of non-tribal migrants has further disrupted tribal cultures, with some communities, like the Santhals, migrating to areas like Ranchi when their lands were taken for mining.

The exploitation of tribals by outsiders, coupled with increased poverty, indebtedness, and bonded labor, has compounded the challenges. Traditional crafts, such as the Chenchus’ basket-making, have also suffered due to the introduction of modern machinery and plastic goods.

Displacement: Loss and Marginalization

Displacement due to development projects has disproportionately affected tribal populations. According to an expert group on tribal land alienation, 25% of all tribals have been displaced, with 47% of displaced people being tribals. This disruption has led to the loss of productive assets like forests, farms, and homes, leaving many tribes impoverished. As a result, they have transitioned from self-sufficient communities to marginalized groups, facing a deteriorating quality of life.

Displacement also leads to social disintegration, particularly in terms of family structure and traditional economic practices. The introduction of mainstream values has created a cultural shock for displaced tribal people, exacerbating their vulnerability and making them more susceptible to exploitation.

Government Policies: Empowerment vs. Marginalization

Government policies have had mixed effects on tribal communities. On the positive side, the Tribal Sub-Plan (TSP) has provided targeted budget allocations for tribal welfare. The Panchayat Raj Extension Act (73rd CAA, 1996) has strengthened grassroots democracy in tribal areas, and reservations in education, employment, and legislation have empowered tribal communities.

However, government policies have often marginalized tribes by failing to consult them adequately during development projects, leading to displacement and loss of livelihoods. Policies aimed at assimilating tribal communities into the mainstream have sometimes led to the suppression of their unique cultures and practices. Furthermore, the lack of access to basic services like education, healthcare, and infrastructure has perpetuated socio-economic disparities between tribals and the broader society.

Conclusion

The impact of industrialization, displacement, and government policies on tribal communities in India has been profound and multifaceted. While there have been some positive developments in terms of employment and empowerment, the overall effect has often been the erosion of tribal culture, loss of livelihood, and increased vulnerability. Tribals today face the challenge of preserving their cultural identity while navigating the pressures of integration into a rapidly changing society.

Model Answer

1. Lack of Adequate Measures

• Unorganized Sector Workers: A significant portion of the urban poor work in the unorganized sector, facing high poverty risks. However, insurance-based interventions remain underdeveloped.
• Example: The Unorganised Workers Social Security Act (UWSSA) 2008 has seen limited progress in creating effective social security schemes for informal workers, leaving them vulnerable.

2. Lack of Local Participation

• AMRUT Mission Issues: The AMRUT mission, aimed at ensuring access to water and sewerage connections, faltered due to a lack of involvement from local representatives in decision-making.
• Example: The apex committee for AMRUT is composed of non-elected members, and the state-level committees are often led by bureaucrats with ties to private consultants, undermining local accountability.

3. Poor Design of Schemes

• Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (Urban): While this scheme aims to address the housing needs of the urban poor, its design faces significant issues.
  • Affordable Housing: High land prices push affordable housing to urban peripheries, far from where the poor live and work.
  • Slum Redevelopment: The cost of maintaining redeveloped buildings, including utilities like water and electricity, often exceeds the paying capacity of slum dwellers.

4. Poor Implementation

• National Urban Health Mission (NUHM): This mission, meant to improve healthcare access for the urban poor, suffers from ineffective implementation.
• Example: A study shows that Urban Primary Health Centres are 40% short of government norms, and many are located far from slum areas, limiting access to healthcare.

Conclusion

Addressing urban poverty in India requires reforms focused on better implementation, local participation, and the design of more inclusive and sustainable measures. Programs like Ayushman Bharat and PM Street Vendor’s AtmaNirbhar Nidhi are steps in the right direction, but more comprehensive efforts are necessary.

Model Answer

India has witnessed a significant reduction in poverty, with 24.82 crore people emerging out of multidimensional poverty between 2013-14 and 2022-23, according to NITI Aayog. This progress has led to the emergence of a newly non-poor population, who, while above the poverty line, remain vulnerable to economic shocks. To address these evolving challenges, India must reform its social protection system to cater to both chronic poverty and the vulnerabilities of the newly non-poor.

1. Shifting from Protective to Preventive Measures

India’s social protection system must move beyond protective instruments (like safety nets) to include preventive and promotional measures. These focus on enhancing the capacity of families to withstand economic shocks. By investing in human capital development—such as providing access to job opportunities and income generation—India can reduce the risk of individuals falling back into poverty. Preventive measures can cushion families against shocks before they occur, making them more resilient in the long term.

2. Expanding Insurance Coverage

Currently, only 4% of Indians benefit from government social insurance programs. Expanding insurance coverage can prevent households from relying solely on safety nets during crises, which often leads to long-term poverty and debt. Expanding contributory pension schemes, for example, can reduce the need for state welfare transfers in old age, ensuring more financial security for individuals as they grow older.

3. Engaging the Private Sector

To overcome the limitations of government resources, engaging the private sector through Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs) is essential. These collaborations can attract additional investments, thereby strengthening the financial resources available for social protection programs. PPPs can also help expand and improve the reach of safety nets, benefiting a wider population.

4. Portability of Benefits for Migrants

To ensure economic stability and social security for migrant populations, India should introduce portability of benefits. By allowing individuals to access their entitlements regardless of their location, such as a migrant worker in Delhi being able to access health benefits from Bihar, the country can provide greater stability and reduce disparities caused by migration.

By incorporating these reforms, India can build a social protection system that addresses both chronic poverty and the vulnerabilities of the newly non-poor, ensuring inclusive growth and social security for all.