Model Answer

Introduction

The Jallianwala Bagh massacre of April 13, 1919, marked a critical juncture in India’s fight for independence. British troops, under General Reginald Dyer, killed hundreds of unarmed Indian civilians protesting British oppression. This brutal act not only heightened tensions within India but also attracted global attention, significantly influencing both domestic and international politics.

Domestic Impact of the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre

The massacre galvanized India’s political landscape. It became a powerful rallying cry for Indian leaders, leading to the emergence of Mahatma Gandhi as a key figure in the independence movement. The massacre intensified the push for Indian self-rule, sparking the Non-Cooperation Movement in 1920, which united Hindus and Muslims in their opposition to British colonialism.

Relations between the British and Indians soured dramatically after the massacre. The Indian public lost trust in British authorities, and anti-British sentiments surged across the nation. The massacre also deepened religious and communal divides, particularly among the Sikh community, many of whom were victims, leading to feelings of betrayal, as they had previously been loyal to the British.

Additionally, many soldiers who had previously served in the British Indian Army protested the massacre by resigning or refusing to reenlist, demonstrating the growing disillusionment with British rule.

International Impact of the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre

Globally, the massacre attracted widespread condemnation. International media outlets denounced the British for their actions, portraying them as an example of colonial brutality. This criticism not only tarnished Britain’s image but also fueled anti-colonial sentiment worldwide.

The incident also led to diplomatic tensions, particularly with the United States and Canada, who criticized Britain’s treatment of Indians. Moreover, it inspired nationalist movements in other colonized countries and contributed to the larger decolonization process.

Conclusion

The Jallianwala Bagh massacre was a transformative event in India’s struggle for independence. It galvanized domestic resistance, united diverse groups against British rule, and attracted global attention to the injustices of colonialism. It remains a significant moment in both Indian and global history, symbolizing the brutality of imperialism and the unyielding desire for self-determination.

Model Answer

Strategy of the Indian Capitalist Class During the National Movement

The Indian capitalist class played a significant role in the national movement, adopting a strategy that balanced constitutional participation with alternative forms of struggle. This dual approach helped them navigate between aligning with the Indian National Congress (INC) and protecting their own economic interests.

1. Support for Constitutional Methods

a. Constitutional Participation:

• The capitalists supported constitutional methods as a means to express their opposition to policies that would harm India’s economy.
• Fact: In 1934, the Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce & Industry (FICCI) rejected the Report of the Joint Parliamentary Committee on Constitutional Reforms for India as it did not meet the minimum national demands (Source: FICCI Records).
• Fact: FICCI advised a boycott of the Round Table Conferences, except for the Second Round Table Conference, due to the absence of INC leadership and Mahatma Gandhi (Source: FICCI Archives).

b. Alignment with Congress’s National Goals:

• The capitalist class saw participation in constitutional assemblies as a way to stay aligned with the progressive goals of the INC, particularly the attainment of Swaraj.
• Fact: They refrained from supporting bills like the Public Safety Bill that repressed socialist and communist elements within the movement, as it was seen as harmful to India’s national interests (Source: Legislative Records).

2. Support for Alternative Forms of Struggle

a. Non-Violent Mass Struggles:

• While the capitalists preferred constitutional methods, they did not rule out using non-violent mass struggles as a tool for achieving their goals.
• Fact: G.D. Birla warned British leaders like Lord Halifax and Lord Lothian with the threat of mass civil disobedience in 1937 if constitutional advances were not fulfilled (Source: Birla’s Correspondence).

b. Mediation and Pressure on the British Government:

• Capitalist leaders acted as intermediaries between the INC and the British government, particularly during critical phases like the withdrawal of the Civil Disobedience Movement.
• Fact: They pressured the British government to cease repression, release political prisoners, and lift the ban on Congress (Source: Personal Letters of G.D. Birla and Purshottamdas Thakurdas).

3. Long-Term Vision and Nationalist Support

• The capitalists recognized the importance of supporting Indian nationalism, even when faced with pressures from imperialism.
• Fact: Leaders like G.D. Birla and Purshottamdas Thakurdas critiqued imperialism’s economic exploitation, including excessive taxation and currency manipulation, strengthening the nationalist cause (Source: Economic Critiques by Indian Capitalists).

Conclusion

The Indian capitalist class adopted a balanced strategy during the national movement, supporting constitutional reforms while also using mass struggles to apply pressure on the British. Their ability to mediate between Congress and the British, combined with their long-term vision, played a crucial role in the Indian freedom struggle.

Model Answer

Evolution of the Working Class in India

The working class in India began to take shape in the latter half of the 19th century, primarily due to the growth of modern industry under British colonial rule. This evolution was closely tied to the broader Indian national movement.

Evolution of the Working Class

The destruction of the traditional village economy, driven by British free trade policies, forced many impoverished rural workers to migrate to urban areas in search of employment. This migration laid the foundation for the industrial working class, particularly in cities like Bombay and Calcutta, where demand for cheap labor surged (Source: “The Working Class of India: History and Perspective” by R. K. Sharma). Initially unorganized and exploited, especially women and children, the working conditions began to improve with the introduction of legislation like the Factories Act of 1881 and the Factories Act of 1891.

As the working class became more organized, they shifted focus from purely economic issues to broader political concerns. This transformation was evident in significant strikes and protests, such as the Ahmedabad mill strike. The establishment of trade unions post-World War I, exemplified by the formation of the All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC) in 1920, marked a consolidation of the working class. During the 1920s and 30s, communist ideologies began to influence the working class, promoting political activism (Source: “Trade Union Movement in India” by A. K. Sen).

Involvement in the Freedom Struggle

The working class actively participated in key national movements, including the Swadeshi Movement, Non-Cooperation Movement, and Quit India Movement. For instance, railway workers protested during the Rowlatt Agitation, showcasing their commitment to the national cause (Source: “The Role of Working Class in India’s Freedom Struggle” by P. S. Gupta).

Strikes and hartals became common as workers sought to address both economic and political grievances, exemplified by strikes in government presses and textile mills. Lala Lajpat Rai, president of AITUC, notably critiqued the link between capitalism and imperialism, positioning the working class as a vital force against colonial rule.

Trade unions proliferated in 1919-20, further embedding workers in the national political landscape. Many prominent leaders, including C.R. Das and Subhash Chandra Bose, collaborated with the AITUC, urging workers to engage in political activism.

Though the emergence of a strong leftist movement in the late 1920s caused some tensions with the Congress Party, the working class remained essential to the freedom struggle, particularly in the post-World War II period during the INA trials and the naval ratings’ mutiny in 1946 (Source: “The Indian National Movement: A History” by B. R. Nanda).

In summary, the working class evolved from a fragmented group into a politically conscious force, playing a pivotal role in India’s struggle for independence.