Constitutional Development (1858-1947)

The 1892 and 1909 Indian Councils Acts passed to address political reform aspirations instead generated unfulfilled Indian ambitions thus bringing about revolutionary discontent.

Indian Councils Act of 1892

Through the 1892 Act members from outside the government gained additional seats on both Central and provincial legislative councils where they received permission to speak about budget proposals and raise matters towards executive departments. The elected members of these councils received their seats through indirect selection and retained limited power capabilities. Spiritless governmental reform failed to satisfy many people who wanted real political representation after the passage of the Act.

The hopes of improvements expressed by Tagore and Gandhi contradicted Tilak who attacked limited reform outcomes by urging Indians to perform direct nationalist activism. Young nationalists became disenchanted with the Act’s weaknesses because they concluded that constitutional methods yielded no fruitful results.

Indian Councils Act of 1909

The Morley-Minto Reforms of 1909 structured the system of indirect voting and enlarged the number of Indian representatives on legislative bodies. British authorities maintained essential executive capabilities throughout the system. The Muslim voting system created separate representation which helped British strategies to divide India. Subhas Chandra Bose along with Lala Lajpat Rai together with other revolutionary figures treated the reforms as simple “tokenism” without taking them seriously enough to make substantial changes.

Contribute to Revolutionary Movements

The federal Acts failed to provide Indians with self-governance so they deepened nationwide resentment among young Indians. Tilak widened the popularity of nationalist radical thought that led revolutionaries of Anushilan Samiti and Jugantar to act accordingly. Together with the creation of religious division between groups projected by the 1909 Act Indians evolved a force that resisted British rule as a unit.

The series of limited reform acts together with ongoing British rule and growing social segregation triggered revolutionary groups such as the Hindustan Republican Association and the Ghadar Party which pursued independence outside the realm of constitutional documents and principles.