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Modern India

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TeamSupreme
Asked: February 18, 2025In:
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Roadmap for Answer Writing Introduction Context: Introduce the Quit India Movement, launched on August 8, 1942, as a significant milestone in India’s struggle for independence. Thesis Statement: Outline the key events that led to the movement and its resulting impact on Indian society ...

upsc: towards freedom & partition (1939-1947)
  1. Team
    Team Supreme

    Model Answer Introduction The Quit India Movement, launched on August 8, 1942, was a pivotal moment in India's struggle for independence, driven by a series of events that highlighted the growing discontent with British rule during World War II. Events Leading to the Quit India Movement Growth of InRead more

    Model Answer

    Introduction

    The Quit India Movement, launched on August 8, 1942, was a pivotal moment in India’s struggle for independence, driven by a series of events that highlighted the growing discontent with British rule during World War II.

    Events Leading to the Quit India Movement

    1. Growth of Indian Nationalism: The 1930s and 1940s saw a surge in Indian nationalism, with leaders like Gandhi, Nehru, and Subhas Chandra Bose energizing the population through movements such as the Civil Disobedience Movement, which created momentum for the final push against British rule.
    2. Impact of World War II: The British decision to involve India in World War II without consulting Indian leaders led to widespread resentment. In 1939, the Indian National Congress resigned from provincial governments in protest, deepening dissatisfaction among Indians.
    3. Economic Exploitation and Famine: The war exacerbated economic exploitation and led to severe famines, further worsening public discontent.
    4. Failure of the Cripps Mission (1942): The Cripps Mission, which offered limited post-war dominion status, was rejected by Indian leaders, including Gandhi, as it did not promise immediate self-rule. This failure intensified anti-British sentiment.
    5. Rejection of Self-Government: By 1942, frustration grew over the British refusal to grant self-government, fueling nationalist sentiment. The Indian National Congress began advocating for the British to “Quit India.”
    6. Subhas Chandra Bose and the INA: Bose’s efforts to form the Indian National Army (INA) and seek foreign support for independence demonstrated the lengths to which nationalists would go for freedom.
    7. Mahatma Gandhi’s Leadership: Gandhi’s commitment to non-violent resistance inspired millions, culminating in his call for mass mobilization under the slogan “Do or Die,” leading to the launch of the Quit India Movement.

    Results of the Quit India Movement

    1. Mass Uprisings and Repression: The movement sparked widespread protests and strikes, which were brutally repressed by the British, resulting in thousands of arrests.
    2. Unified National Spirit: The movement fostered a strong sense of national unity, bringing together diverse groups in the fight for independence.
    3. End of British Colonial Legitimacy: The movement demonstrated that British rule had lost its legitimacy in the eyes of Indians, accelerating the demand for independence.
    4. Increased Repression: The British response involved severe repression, arresting over 100,000 leaders and activists, which reinforced the determination of the Indian populace to fight for freedom.
    5. Emergence of Parallel Governments: Local parallel governments emerged in some regions, challenging British authority and showcasing the desire for self-rule.
    6. Strengthening of the Indian National Congress: Despite the arrests, the Congress solidified its role as the leading force in the independence movement.
    7. Foundation for Post-War Negotiations: Although the movement did not achieve immediate independence, it laid the groundwork for post-World War II negotiations, leading to the eventual transfer of power in 1947.
    8. International Attention: The Quit India Movement garnered international attention, increasing global support for India’s independence cause.

    Conclusion

    The Quit India Movement marked a critical turning point in India’s freedom struggle, demonstrating the ungovernability of India under British rule and laying the foundation for eventual independence in 1947.

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Adheesh Raman
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Adheesh RamanLearner
Asked: February 15, 2025In:
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Roadmap for Answer Writing 1. Introduction Briefly introduce the Indian National Congress (INC) and its formation in 1885. State that the first two decades of the INC’s existence (1885-1905) were marked by the moderate phase, where the focus was on constitutional reforms and ...

upsc: growth of nationalism in india (1858-1905)
  1. Team
    Team Supreme

    Model Answer Introduction The Indian National Congress (INC), established in 1885, played a pivotal role in shaping India’s socio-political landscape during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The moderate phase of the Congress (1885-1905) was characterized by constitutionalism and gradual reforRead more

    Model Answer

    Introduction

    The Indian National Congress (INC), established in 1885, played a pivotal role in shaping India’s socio-political landscape during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The moderate phase of the Congress (1885-1905) was characterized by constitutionalism and gradual reforms. The leaders of this period, such as Dadabhai Naoroji, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, and others, aimed to achieve self-governance through peaceful means within the British colonial framework.

    Role of INC’s Ideals and Programme in Shaping Socio-Political Landscape

    • Moderation and Constitutionalism: The INC’s early approach was based on working within the British legal framework to bring gradual reforms. Leaders like Naoroji and Gokhale advocated for reform rather than rebellion, aiming to achieve self-rule through constitutional means.
    • Strengthening Political Consciousness: The INC helped raise political awareness and consciousness among the Indian masses. Through discussions, debates, and resolutions, it educated people about political issues, which in turn mobilized them to actively engage in the political process.
    • Political Representation: The INC demanded increased political representation for Indians in administrative bodies. This call for greater Indian participation in decision-making processes, especially through reforms such as the Indian Councils Act of 1892, played a significant role in shaping India’s political landscape.
    • Nationalism and Unity: By uniting people across regional, linguistic, and religious lines, the INC fostered a sense of nationalism. Its leadership emphasized the importance of national unity in the face of British colonial rule.
    • Mobilization of Public Opinion: The INC held public meetings and disseminated literature to create a broader public understanding of political issues, helping to expand the nationalist movement.

    Official Response

    • Initial Recognition: The British government initially saw the INC as a moderate platform for political engagement. The INC’s constitutional methods were seen as a way for Indians to express concerns within British rule.
    • Reforms in Response to INC Demands: The Indian Councils Act of 1892 and the Morley-Minto Reforms of 1909 were attempts to address some of the INC’s demands, allowing Indians more involvement in legislative bodies.
    • Repression and Divide-and-Rule: As the INC became more assertive in demanding reforms, the British government increasingly suppressed it through arrests, censorship, and the manipulation of religious and regional divides within India.
    • Distrust and Alienation: Over time, the British viewed the INC with growing suspicion, especially as it gained popular support and started advocating for self-rule, which threatened British colonial dominance.

    Conclusion

    The ideals and programs of the Indian National Congress had a significant impact on India’s political landscape, uniting the masses and fostering national consciousness. While the early years of the INC saw a moderate approach, the British response was a mixture of engagement, reform, and repression. This period laid the foundation for future, more radical movements in the Indian struggle for independence.

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Adheesh Raman
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Adheesh RamanLearner
Asked: February 15, 2025In:
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Roadmap for Answer Writing 1. Introduction Context: Briefly introduce the Non-Cooperation Movement (NCM), launched by Mahatma Gandhi in 1920, and its significance in India’s independence struggle. Thesis: Mention that the movement was motivated by various socio-political factors and played a pivotal role in ...

upsc: beginning of mass nationalism (1919-1939)
  1. Team
    Team Supreme

    Model Answer Introduction The Non-Cooperation Movement (NCM), initiated by Mahatma Gandhi in 1920, marked a critical phase in India's quest for independence from British colonial rule. The movement aimed at uniting Indians in peaceful protest and demanding self-governance. It was a transformative stRead more

    Model Answer

    Introduction

    The Non-Cooperation Movement (NCM), initiated by Mahatma Gandhi in 1920, marked a critical phase in India’s quest for independence from British colonial rule. The movement aimed at uniting Indians in peaceful protest and demanding self-governance. It was a transformative step in the Indian freedom struggle.

    Key Factors that Motivated Gandhi to Launch the Non-Cooperation Movement

    1. Jallianwala Bagh Massacre: The brutal massacre on April 13, 1919, where British troops killed hundreds of innocent Indian civilians, deeply impacted Gandhi. This tragic event intensified his resolve to challenge British rule.
      • Fact: The massacre galvanized widespread outrage, strengthening the call for non-violent resistance against British oppression.
    2. Rowlatt Act: The 1919 Rowlatt Act, which allowed the British to imprison Indians without trial and curtail civil liberties, violated fundamental human rights, prompting Gandhi to take action.
      • Fact: Gandhi saw the Rowlatt Act as an unjust law, leading him to launch nationwide protests in opposition.
    3. Khilafat Movement: The Khilafat Movement, led by Indian Muslims to protect the Ottoman Caliphate, provided an opportunity for Gandhi to unite Hindus and Muslims against British rule.
      • Fact: Gandhi’s involvement in the Khilafat Movement aimed to bridge communal gaps and form a united front for independence.
    4. Economic Hardships Due to World War I: The economic consequences of India’s involvement in World War I, including soaring prices and suffering peasants, led to widespread resentment against British rule.
      • Fact: The war induced economic strain, fueling discontent among Indians, particularly the working class and peasants.

    Significance of the Non-Cooperation Movement

    1. Mass Mobilization: The NCM united various sections of Indian society, including students, peasants, and workers, in a nonviolent resistance against British rule.
      • Fact: Millions participated in protests, creating a national sense of purpose and unity.
    2. Hindu-Muslim Unity: Gandhi’s efforts to involve both Hindus and Muslims in the NCM helped bridge communal divisions and foster a collective identity against British imperialism.
      • Fact: This unity helped challenge the British strategy of “divide and rule.”
    3. Boycott of British Institutions and Goods: The NCM encouraged the boycott of British goods, educational institutions, and courts, weakening British authority and boosting local industries.
      • Fact: The boycott led to economic losses for the British and increased self-reliance among Indians.
    4. Inspiration for Future Movements: The NCM laid the foundation for subsequent independence movements, including the Civil Disobedience Movement and the Quit India Movement.
      • Fact: The principles of nonviolent resistance and self-reliance, advocated during the NCM, became the core strategy in later movements.

    Conclusion

    While the Non-Cooperation Movement did not immediately achieve its goals, it played a crucial role in reshaping India’s freedom struggle. Gandhi’s leadership and the movement’s mass appeal significantly advanced the cause of Indian independence, laying the groundwork for future protests and resistance against British colonialism.

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Adheesh Raman
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Adheesh RamanLearner
Asked: February 15, 2025In:
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Roadmap for Answer Writing To effectively answer this question, follow this structured roadmap that provides a detailed evaluation of the Charter Acts of 1833 and 1853, while highlighting their importance in shaping colonial India’s history. 1. Introduction Purpose: Introduce the Charter Acts of ...

upsc: modern history events before 1857
  1. Team
    Team Supreme

    Model Answer Introduction The Charter Acts of 1833 and 1853 were pivotal legislative reforms that played a crucial role in shaping the governance and administration of colonial India. These acts marked a transition from the East India Company's commercial activities to more direct British control, iRead more

    Model Answer

    Introduction

    The Charter Acts of 1833 and 1853 were pivotal legislative reforms that played a crucial role in shaping the governance and administration of colonial India. These acts marked a transition from the East India Company’s commercial activities to more direct British control, influencing India’s political, social, and economic structure.

    Charter Act of 1833

    • End of the East India Company’s Commercial Activities:
      • The Act ended the East India Company’s role as a commercial entity, making it solely an administrative body.
      • Fact: The company’s territories in India were held “in trust” for the British crown.
    • Centralization of Power:
      • The Act centralized power by making the Governor-General of Bengal the Governor-General of India, with authority over the entire British territories in India.
      • Fact: Lord William Bentick became the first Governor-General of India.
      • It also stripped the Governors of Bombay and Madras of their legislative powers.
    • Civil Services Reform:
      • The Act introduced a system of open competition for the selection of civil servants.
      • Fact: Though it allowed Indians to hold civil service positions, the open competition system was not effectively implemented.
    • Creation of the Indian Law Commission:
      • The Law Commission, headed by Lord Macaulay, was tasked with codifying Indian laws.
      • Fact: This laid the foundation for modern Indian legal codes.

    Charter Act of 1853

    • Separation of Legislative and Executive Functions:
      • This Act separated the executive and legislative functions of the Governor-General’s council.
      • Fact: It created the Indian (Central) Legislative Council, a mini-parliament modeled after the British Parliament.
    • Reform in Civil Service Recruitment:
      • The Act expanded open competition for civil services, allowing Indians to participate in the selection process.
      • Fact: The Macaulay Committee (1854) was formed to implement this system.
    • Local Representation:
      • For the first time, the Act introduced local representation in the Legislative Council by appointing members from provincial governments.
      • Fact: Four out of the six new members in the council were appointed by local governments.

    Significance and Conclusion

    Both Acts contributed to the centralization of British power in India. The 1833 Act solidified direct British rule, while the 1853 Act introduced reforms that laid the groundwork for India’s future legislative and administrative structures. However, despite some reforms, these Acts reinforced British control and furthered the colonial agenda, marking a significant shift in the governance of colonial India.

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Swapna Sundari
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Swapna SundariLearner
Asked: January 27, 2025In:
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Roadmap for Answer Writing 1. Introduction (50-60 words) Briefly introduce Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, highlighting his importance in India’s history. Mention his role as a freedom fighter and his key contribution to India’s unification after independence. Example: “Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, a prominent leader of the ...

upsc: contribution of personalities
  1. Team
    Best Answer
    Team Supreme

    Model Answer Introduction Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, born in Gujarat, was one of the most influential leaders in India’s history. A lawyer by profession, Patel became a pivotal figure in the Indian independence movement under the guidance of Mahatma Gandhi. While he played a crucial role in India’s sRead more

    Model Answer

    Introduction

    Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, born in Gujarat, was one of the most influential leaders in India’s history. A lawyer by profession, Patel became a pivotal figure in the Indian independence movement under the guidance of Mahatma Gandhi. While he played a crucial role in India’s struggle for freedom, his most significant contribution came after independence, where he became the architect of India’s political unity.

    Contributions of Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel in Pre-independent India

    Sardar Patel’s contributions to India’s freedom struggle were vast and varied. He was an active participant in several key movements, including the Non-Cooperation Movement (1920), where he gave up his successful legal practice and championed the cause of swaraj by establishing the Gujarat Vidyapeeth, promoting education away from government schools.

    Patel’s leadership was instrumental in the Bardoli Satyagraha (1928), where farmers protested against unfair taxes imposed by the British. Under Patel’s guidance, the movement was successful, and the tax was withdrawn, solidifying his reputation as a leader of the masses. He was also a strong supporter of the Quit India Movement in 1942, which aimed at ending British rule in India.

    Patel’s negotiation skills were crucial in the complex discussions around India’s freedom and partition. He worked closely with the British to secure India’s independence, ensuring that the country was on the path to freedom.

    Contributions of Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel in Post-independent India

    After independence, Patel was entrusted with the responsibility of integrating over 500 princely states into the newly formed Indian Union. His tireless efforts led to the peaceful accession of most states, ensuring the political unity of India.

    As India’s first Deputy Prime Minister, Patel played an essential role in drafting the Indian Constitution and headed several important committees, including the Advisory Committee on Fundamental Rights and the Provincial Constitution Committee. His efforts to preserve the Indian Civil Services and manage the aftermath of Partition helped stabilize the country.

    Conclusion

    Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel’s contributions to India, both before and after independence, were instrumental in shaping the nation. His leadership and vision of a united India continue to inspire future generations, making him a pivotal figure in India’s history.

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Swapna Sundari
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Swapna SundariLearner
Asked: January 27, 2025In:
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Roadmap for Answer Writing 1. Introduction (50-70 words) Contextualize the question: Provide a brief historical overview of British colonial rule in India and its economic foundations. Thesis Statement: Highlight the scope of the analysis—colonial economic policies’ effects on agriculture, industry, trade, and infrastructure, ...

upsc: economic impact of british rule
  1. Team
    Team Supreme

    Model Answer Introduction The British colonial rule in India, which began in the mid-18th century, profoundly shaped the country's economic, political, and cultural landscape. The decline of the Mughal Empire provided the British with the opportunity to exert control over Indian territory. Through wRead more

    Model Answer

    Introduction

    The British colonial rule in India, which began in the mid-18th century, profoundly shaped the country’s economic, political, and cultural landscape. The decline of the Mughal Empire provided the British with the opportunity to exert control over Indian territory. Through wars, treaties, annexations, and alliances, the British consolidated their power. However, their economic policies, designed to benefit Britain, left lasting effects on India’s economy, social fabric, and political structures. These effects continue to influence modern-day India in terms of economic inequality, cultural identity, and political power dynamics.

    Impact of Colonial Economic Policies in India

    Agriculture

    The British introduced policies that prioritized the production of cash crops such as indigo, cotton, and opium, often at the expense of food crops. This led to widespread famines and food shortages, most notably the Bengal famine of 1943, which killed millions. The Zamindari system, wherein land was leased to intermediaries who exploited farmers through exorbitant rents and taxes, further exacerbated rural poverty. The promotion of monoculture, such as tea plantations, reduced agricultural diversity, leaving India vulnerable to economic shocks.

    Deindustrialization

    Under British rule, India’s industrial sector was deliberately suppressed to safeguard British economic interests. Indian handicrafts and industries like textiles faced high tariffs, making them uncompetitive in the global market. This resulted in widespread deindustrialization, leading to unemployment and poverty. As a result, local industries such as steel and cotton mills were dismantled, and India became a supplier of raw materials rather than finished goods.

    Trade and Infrastructure

    The British implemented trade policies that restricted Indian exports and monopolized crucial sectors like cotton and tea. While the British developed infrastructure such as railways and ports, these were designed to serve colonial interests—transporting raw materials for export rather than benefiting India’s economy. This infrastructure, although extensive, did not contribute significantly to Indian industrial or economic development.

    Lasting Effects on India Today

    Economic Inequality

    The colonial policies laid the foundation for deep economic inequality. By favoring the export of cash crops and discouraging industrialization, the British left India with a weak economic base. Today, India continues to struggle with significant poverty and income disparity. Although the country has made substantial economic strides since independence, the legacy of underdevelopment, especially in rural areas, persists.

    Cultural Identity

    The British undermined Indian culture and traditions, promoting Western ideals and creating a class of clerks and administrators loyal to the British Empire. This cultural disintegration continues to influence India today, with ongoing debates about identity, communalism, and the preservation of traditional practices amidst globalizing pressures.

    Political Power Dynamics

    British policies of divide and rule exacerbated existing religious and caste divisions, sowing discord among India’s communities. This legacy of communalism is still evident in India’s political landscape, where religious and caste-based identities often influence elections and governance. The mistrust between various groups, fostered during British rule, continues to affect India’s political power dynamics.

    Conclusion

    The British colonial era had a profound and multifaceted impact on India, shaping its economy, culture, and political landscape in ways that are still felt today. While the British introduced infrastructural developments, these were largely designed to benefit colonial interests rather than the Indian populace. The lasting effects of their policies—economic inequality, cultural erosion, and political fragmentation—continue to influence India’s development. The country’s journey toward self-determination and modernization is still marked by the scars of colonial exploitation.

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Rajashree Shirke
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Rajashree ShirkeLearner
Asked: January 27, 2025In:
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Roadmap for Answer Writing 1. Introduction Brief Contextualization: Begin by providing a brief overview of the historical context of the princely states in colonial India. Mention that these states were ruled by monarchs, and the people of these regions fought for democratic ...

upsc: freedom movement
  1. Team
    Best Answer
    Team Supreme

    Model Answer Introduction The democratization movements in India's princely states played a crucial role in the struggle for a democratic India. These movements sought to challenge autocratic rulers and demand greater representation, civil rights, and democratic reforms. The Indian National CongressRead more

    Model Answer

    Introduction

    The democratization movements in India’s princely states played a crucial role in the struggle for a democratic India. These movements sought to challenge autocratic rulers and demand greater representation, civil rights, and democratic reforms. The Indian National Congress (INC) played a varying yet significant role in these movements, particularly as they evolved over time, from moral persuasion to active support. This answer will explore the different forms of democratization movements in the princely states and evaluate the approach of the Indian National Congress towards them.

    Phase I: Local Grievance Movements (Before the 1920s)

    In the early phase, the demands in the princely states were centered on addressing local grievances such as employment issues, lack of civil liberties, and the dominance of outsiders in administration. Prominent organizations like the Praja Mandal and Lok Parishads were formed in states like Travancore and Mysore (e.g., Praja Mithra Mandali in 1917). These early movements primarily focused on administrative and legal rights for the people under autocratic rule.

    Phase II: Demand for Representation (1920s-1930s)

    In this phase, the focus shifted to public protests and demands for greater political representation. The establishment of political organizations in states like Bhavnagar, Junagarh, and Rajputana, and the formation of the Punjab Riyasati Praja Mandal, marked a significant escalation in the fight for legal rights. These movements demanded representative assemblies and greater funding for social infrastructure. In places like Cochin and Travancore, some success was achieved, with limited franchise introduced.

    Phase III: Mass Mobilization (Post-1930s)

    This phase saw mass peasant mobilization, particularly against exploitative taxes and feudal practices. Movements like the Bijolia peasant uprising in Udaipur and the Jat Kisan Sabhas in Rajputana focused on both economic grievances and challenging the feudal status quo. These movements often ran parallel to the urban educated class’s campaigns, though there were limited organizational links between the two.

    Phase IV: Unification into the Indian Union

    The final phase was marked by the political unification of the princely states into independent India. Political mobilization had already set the stage for the integration, and while some states like Hyderabad and Jammu-Kashmir required military intervention, the process was largely peaceful due to the groundwork laid by these movements.

    The Indian National Congress’s Approach

    Initially, the INC maintained a policy of non-interference in princely states, as they were considered autonomous entities under the British Crown. However, as democratic movements gained momentum, particularly during Gandhi’s leadership, the Congress shifted its stance. By the late 1930s, the Congress actively supported the demands of the Praja Mandals, advocating for democratic reforms and the formation of responsible governments. The Congress criticized the British for maintaining undemocratic princely rule and even supported civil disobedience against autocratic rulers.

    While Congress did support the democratization efforts in princely states, its focus on the broader national struggle often led to a lack of attention to these local movements. Furthermore, the Congress’s non-violent resistance tactics were not always suitable for dealing with the repressive methods employed by princely rulers.

    Conclusion

    The democratization movements in the princely states evolved from localized grievances to mass mobilization against feudal and autocratic systems. The Indian National Congress, initially reluctant to intervene, increasingly supported these movements, particularly under Mahatma Gandhi’s leadership. However, the Congress’s involvement was not always consistent, and the challenges of uniting the diverse movements in the princely states remained a significant hurdle in achieving widespread success. Despite these challenges, these movements contributed significantly to the eventual unification of India.

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Rajashree Shirke
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Rajashree ShirkeLearner
Asked: January 27, 2025In:
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Roadmap for Answer Writing 1. Introduction (Approx. 50-60 words) Context Setting: Briefly introduce the various land revenue systems introduced by the British during their rule in India. Mention the key systems: Zamindari, Rayatwari, and Mahalwari. Thesis Statement: State that these policies were primarily ...

upsc: administrative policy
  1. Team
    Best Answer
    Team Supreme

    Model Answer Introduction During British colonial rule in India, three primary land revenue systems were introduced: Zamindari, Mahalwari, and Rayatwari. These systems were largely shaped by economic motives, as revenue generation was a key goal of British rule. The policies aimed to maximize revenuRead more

    Model Answer

    Introduction

    During British colonial rule in India, three primary land revenue systems were introduced: Zamindari, Mahalwari, and Rayatwari. These systems were largely shaped by economic motives, as revenue generation was a key goal of British rule. The policies aimed to maximize revenue for the state, with little regard for the welfare of the Indian peasants. The introduction of these land revenue systems had significant long-term consequences for both the agrarian economy and society.

    Reasons Behind the Introduction of Land Revenue Policies

    1. Permanent Settlement (1793)
      • Economic Motive: The British sought a stable, fixed source of income. By making Zamindars the permanent owners of land, the government ensured a predictable revenue stream without the costs associated with annual collections.
      • Loyalty: The British hoped to create a class of loyal landowners who would help defend colonial interests.
      • Land Improvement: The British believed that permanent ownership would incentivize landowners to improve productivity, boosting revenue.

      Impact: This system exploited peasants with high rents, leading to overburdening of the farmers. The absence of investment in land improvement, coupled with frequent famines, severely affected rural communities. The system ultimately caused widespread poverty and economic stagnation.

    2. Ryotwari Settlement (1820s)
      • English Utilitarian Philosophy: The British sought to break the power of Zamindars and shift revenue collection directly to individual peasants, under the belief that it was a more equitable system.
      • Failure of Permanent Settlement: Especially in areas like Madras and Bombay, where the Permanent Settlement had failed to generate sufficient revenue, the Ryotwari system emerged as a solution.

      Impact: The system led to coercive measures to meet revenue targets, with 60% of cultivable land lying fallow by 1855. The Ryotwari also empowered local elites, leading to absentee landlordism and exploitation by moneylenders.

    3. Mahalwari Settlement (1822)
      • Revenue Maximization: The British sought to eliminate the oppressive influence of local taluqdars (landlords) while ensuring greater revenue collection from the peasantry.

      Impact: This system caused farmers to shift from food crops to cash crops to meet high revenue demands, leading to land alienation and increased dependence on moneylenders. The system also empowered village headmen, who often became new Zamindars.

    Conclusion

    The British land revenue policies significantly altered India’s agrarian structure. The exploitation of peasants through excessive taxes, shifting agricultural practices, and the creation of new elites led to widespread economic distress, contributing to famines and peasant uprisings, including the 1857 revolt. The legacy of these systems continues to shape India’s rural economy even today

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Rajashree Shirke
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Rajashree ShirkeLearner
Asked: January 27, 2025In:
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Roadmap for Answer Writing 1. Introduction Contextualize the situation: Briefly mention the political situation after the withdrawal of the Non-Cooperation Movement in 1922 and the divisions that arose within the Indian National Congress. State the factions: Introduce the two main factions—Swarajists and No ...

upsc: beginning of mass nationalism (1919-1939)
  1. Team
    Best Answer
    Team Supreme

    Model Answer Introduction After the withdrawal of the Non-Cooperation Movement by Gandhi in 1922, the Indian National Congress saw a division into two main factions: the Swarajists, who advocated working within the British political system, and the No Changers, who wanted to continue with non-cooperRead more

    Model Answer

    Introduction

    After the withdrawal of the Non-Cooperation Movement by Gandhi in 1922, the Indian National Congress saw a division into two main factions: the Swarajists, who advocated working within the British political system, and the No Changers, who wanted to continue with non-cooperation and boycott British institutions. This division led to differing approaches towards the freedom struggle, and their ability to manage disagreements is worth examining, especially in comparison to the earlier rift between the Moderates and Extremists.

    Differences Between the Swarajists and the No Changers

    Swarajists

    • Constitutional Engagement: The Swarajists, led by C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru, believed in engaging with the British political system through legislative councils. They saw participation in these councils as a way to push for reforms and demand concessions from the British government, particularly following the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms of 1919, which offered limited self-governance.
    • Strategic Participation: They formed the Swaraj Party in 1923 to contest elections and occupy legislative positions, believing this route could serve as a stepping stone towards full independence (swaraj). They were pragmatic in their approach, focusing on legislative reforms.

    No Changers

    • Non-Cooperation and Civil Disobedience: Led by Gandhi, the No Changers rejected participation in British institutions. They saw the legislative councils as inadequate and instead focused on mass movements like Non-Cooperation and Civil Disobedience to achieve full independence.
    • Rejection of Reforms: The No Changers viewed the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms as insufficient and advocated for immediate and complete independence.

    Maturity in Managing Disagreements

    Yes

    • Unified Goal of Independence: Despite their differences, the Swarajists and No Changers remained united in their overarching goal of independence. This was in stark contrast to the intense fragmentation between the Moderates and Extremists after the 1907 Surat split.
    • Leadership Under Gandhi: Gandhi’s leadership helped mitigate conflicts within the Congress, particularly during the 1924 Belgaum session. This allowed both factions to engage in constructive debates and remain within the broader framework of the Congress, unlike the violent split between Moderates and Extremists.
    • Practical Success: The Swarajists were able to form governments in some provinces, like in the Central Provinces, following their electoral successes in 1923. Similarly, the No Changers continued to build the nationalist movement through social reforms, showing that both factions could achieve their goals without resorting to violence.

    No

    • Partial Separation: The Swarajists did form a separate party (Khilafat-Swarajya Party), indicating a level of detachment from the Congress, which mirrored the earlier division between Moderates and Extremists after 1907. This lessened their cohesion within the Congress.
    • Moderate-Extremist Reconciliation: It is also worth noting that the Moderates and Extremists eventually reconciled through the Lucknow Pact of 1916, uniting under the common goal of independence, much like the Swarajists and No Changers.

    Conclusion

    In conclusion, while both the Swarajists and the No Changers took different paths towards independence, they exhibited more maturity in managing their disagreements than the Moderates and Extremists. Their ability to stay united under Gandhi’s leadership, avoid violence, and work towards practical solutions, like the Swarajists’ participation in elections, ensured that they maintained a productive role in the freedom struggle. Ultimately, their cooperation laid the groundwork for the more radical push for independence, marked by the Purna Swaraj resolution at the 1929 Lahore Session.

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Roadmap for Answer Writing 1. Introduction Contextualize the Indian Councils Acts: Briefly explain what the Indian Councils Acts of 1892 and 1909 were and their purpose. Fact to include: The Indian Councils Act of 1892 aimed to slightly expand the legislative councils’ composition ...

upsc: constitutional development (1858-1947)
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    Model Answer Introduction The Indian Councils Acts of 1892 and 1909 were significant in shaping the political landscape of British India. While they introduced some reforms, they also sparked discontent among Indians, fueling the rise of revolutionary movements. The acts were part of the British strRead more

    Model Answer

    Introduction

    The Indian Councils Acts of 1892 and 1909 were significant in shaping the political landscape of British India. While they introduced some reforms, they also sparked discontent among Indians, fueling the rise of revolutionary movements. The acts were part of the British strategy to manage Indian demands for self-governance, but their limited and piecemeal nature failed to satisfy growing political aspirations, leading to greater unrest and the emergence of revolutionary activities.

    Indian Councils Act of 1892

    The Indian Councils Act of 1892 was a small step toward incorporating Indian voices into the political process, but its impact was limited. It increased the number of non-official members in the legislative councils and allowed for some indirect elections. However, the official majority was retained in both the Central and provincial councils. The Act did not provide true representation, as members were still appointed by the British and not elected by the Indian population. The nomination system, where individuals were selected by the Governor-General, further reinforced the British control, leading to dissatisfaction among the Indian populace.

    Indian Councils Act of 1909

    The Indian Councils Act of 1909, also known as the Morley-Minto Reforms, made some more significant changes. It expanded the size of the legislative councils and introduced indirect elections. It allowed for greater participation of Indians in the councils and included provisions for the separate representation of Muslims, which created division and a sense of alienation among other communities. While it increased the number of elected members, the British retained a majority in the councils, and the reforms still did not grant full self-governance, further fueling discontent.

    Contribution to Revolutionary Movements

    Both Acts contributed to the rise of revolutionary movements in India in several ways:

    • Limited Concessions: The British reforms were seen as insufficient, offering only minor concessions, which intensified the demand for greater political representation. This frustration was particularly evident among young leaders like Bal Gangadhar Tilak, who criticized the Congress’s moderate approach.
    • Failure to Address Indian Demands: The slow pace of reforms and the absence of full self-government led many Indians to lose faith in constitutional methods. This disillusionment pushed many towards revolutionary movements.
    • Communal Divide: The introduction of separate electorates for Muslims by the 1909 Act created divisions within Indian society, leading to distrust and further discontent among Indian youth.

    Conclusion

    The Indian Councils Acts of 1892 and 1909, though offering some reforms, failed to meet the aspirations of Indians for self-rule. The limited nature of the changes, coupled with the British retention of power, led to a rise in revolutionary movements. These acts, along with other factors such as economic exploitation and repressive policies, played a key role in shaping the path toward India’s struggle for independence.

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