BPSC Mains PYQs

Expansion of Western and Technical Education in Bihar (1857-1947)

The spread of Western and technical education in Bihar between 1857 and 1947 played a significant role in transforming the social, cultural, and political landscape of the region. The introduction of Western education was primarily driven by British colonial policies, and it was crucial in shaping modern education and providing the tools for future social reforms in Bihar. Let’s trace the major developments during this period:

1. Early Efforts in Western Education (1857-1870)

• Post-1857 Reforms: Following the Sepoy Mutiny of 1857, the British government in India took steps to consolidate its control over the country. This period saw the expansion of Western education, although it was still limited in scope and reach, especially in rural areas.
• Introduction of English and Vernacular Schools: The British focused on educating a small, educated elite who would help them administer the colony. English-medium schools were set up in urban areas like Patna, which became centers for Western learning.
• Role of Missionaries: Christian missionaries were active in spreading Western education in Bihar. Many schools and colleges were established, especially in the capital city of Patna, focusing on primary education, though they also imparted technical training in certain areas.

2. Development of Western Education (1870-1900)

• Establishment of Key Institutions:
  • Patna College (1863): One of the earliest and most important educational institutions in Bihar, Patna College, was established in 1863, offering education in arts and sciences.
  • Other Schools: In this period, several other schools were established in Patna and other parts of Bihar, such as Zila School and Bihar School of Commerce. These institutions promoted education in the humanities, science, and commerce.
• Government Support for Education:
  • The British government began to fund and promote Western education. The Wood’s Dispatch of 1854 played a key role by recommending the establishment of schools and colleges to spread English education and create a new class of clerks to serve the administration. This led to the opening of more schools in Bihar.
  • The Hunter Commission (1882) also helped shape educational policy, recommending the expansion of primary and secondary schools across India, including in Bihar.

3. Spread of Technical Education and Professional Training (1900-1947)

• Focus on Vocational Training:
  • During this period, there was growing attention to technical education. The British recognized the need to develop a skilled workforce for the administration and railway systems. Institutions like the Patna Engineering College (1900) were established to cater to the demand for technical expertise.
  • Agricultural and Industrial Training: Special focus was placed on agricultural education to improve farming techniques and productivity, essential for the rural economy of Bihar. Similarly, industrial training centers were set up to meet the growing demand for skilled labor.
• Introduction of Women’s Education:
  • Women’s Education also started gaining importance during this period, though it remained limited. In 1914, Bihar Women’s Education Association was established to promote women’s education, and by 1940, some girls’ schools were functioning in urban centers.

4. Political and Social Impact of Education

• Rise of Indian Nationalism: The educated elite, influenced by Western education, began to play a crucial role in the nationalist movement. Bihar became a significant center for the Indian National Congress (INC), with many leaders like Rajendra Prasad (later the first President of India) emerging from the educated class.
• Cultural Renaissance: Education also led to a cultural renaissance in Bihar. The spread of modern education helped preserve and promote Indian culture and history, alongside Western ideas of democracy and governance.

5. Challenges Faced by Education System

• Limited Reach: Despite some progress, the expansion of education was still limited to urban centers, and the rural areas remained largely untouched by the wave of Western education.
• Economic Constraints: The education system faced economic constraints as the British largely limited their investment in mass education. The focus was on producing a small educated elite to serve in administrative and clerical roles.

Key Government Schemes in Education:

• Post-independence Reforms: After 1947, the Indian government began focusing on improving literacy and educational standards across Bihar. The Bihar State Education Policy laid the foundation for modern education in the region.
• Strengthening Technical Education: The Bihar State Board of Technical Education (BSBTE), formed post-independence, played an essential role in the development of technical institutions across the state.

Emergence of Gandhiji as an Eminent Nationalist Leader

The rise of Mahatma Gandhi as one of the most influential nationalist leaders in Indian history was not an overnight development. Several social, political, and economic factors, combined with Gandhi’s unique approach to leadership, played a crucial role in shaping his image as the leader of the Indian freedom struggle. Let’s critically analyze the factors responsible for his emergence as a prominent leader.

1. Social and Economic Conditions in India

Colonial Exploitation

• Economic Disparity: India, under British colonial rule, was severely exploited. The British drained resources, disrupted traditional industries, and caused widespread poverty. The agrarian distress, famines, and high taxes were key factors that fueled dissatisfaction with the British administration.
• Socio-Economic Inequality: British policies furthered inequality, with the British elite and their Indian collaborators benefitting while the majority of the Indian population lived in abject poverty.

Impact on Indian Society

• The growing economic distress, combined with the British exploitation, created a fertile ground for anti-colonial sentiments. Many Indians were disillusioned by the British, who failed to address the pressing needs of the common people, making them more receptive to revolutionary ideas.

2. Gandhi’s Early Experiences and Transformation

Influence of South Africa (1893-1914)

• Gandhi’s activism began in South Africa, where he first encountered racial discrimination. His experiences there gave him a unique insight into the plight of oppressed communities and helped shape his ideas of Satyagraha (truth and non-violent resistance).
• Gandhi’s success in organizing Indian laborers in South Africa made him realize the power of non-violent struggle against oppressive systems. This was his initial training ground for what would later become the basis of his national movements in India.

Adoption of Non-Violence (Ahimsa)

• Gandhi’s commitment to ahimsa (non-violence) became central to his philosophy. This non-violent approach distinguished him from other revolutionary leaders and garnered widespread support from all sections of Indian society, including women and marginalized communities.

3. Political and Nationalist Movements

Role of the Congress and Early Nationalism

• Before Gandhi’s rise, India’s political landscape was dominated by early nationalists like Dadabhai Naoroji and Lala Lajpat Rai. However, these leaders, while advocating for reforms, often failed to rally the masses.
• The Indian National Congress (INC), founded in 1885, had been advocating for reforms and self-governance. However, its leadership at the time was primarily made up of the elite, and its appeal to the broader population was limited.

Gandhi’s Leadership in INC

• When Gandhi joined the INC in 1915, the political climate was ripe for change. The failure of the British response to early nationalist demands, the impact of World War I, and the unrest caused by the Jallianwala Bagh massacre (1919) pushed India towards mass movements.
• Gandhi’s leadership in organizing the Champaran (1917) and Kheda (1918) movements gave him credibility. These movements demonstrated his ability to mobilize the masses and use non-violent methods effectively. His role in the Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-22) further solidified his position as the leader of the masses.

4. Gandhi’s Unique Approach to Leadership

Inclusiveness of his Movements

• Gandhi made the freedom struggle inclusive, bringing together different classes, religions, and communities under the banner of non-violent resistance. His ability to connect with people across the social spectrum – from peasants to intellectuals – helped broaden the base of the nationalist movement.
• He also focused on social reforms, including the abolition of untouchability, promoting Hindu-Muslim unity, and encouraging self-reliance through the Swadeshi movement (promoting local products).

Mobilizing the Masses

• Unlike other leaders who had focused on elite political structures, Gandhi’s ability to engage the masses through his campaigns, particularly the Salt March (1930), exemplified his popularity. This act of defiance against the British monopoly on salt became a powerful symbol of resistance.
• His civil disobedience campaigns not only challenged British authority but also provided a sense of empowerment to ordinary Indians, who had never before seen themselves as active participants in a national movement.

5. British Policies Toward Early Nationalists

Repression and Co-optation

• The British response to early nationalists was both repressive and co-optative. For instance, they suppressed revolutionary movements through police actions and imprisonment but also co-opted some leaders by offering political concessions, as seen in the Morley-Minto Reforms (1909).
• However, the brutality and indifference shown by the British during events like the Jallianwala Bagh massacre and their unyielding stance on self-rule strengthened the resolve of Indian nationalists and allowed Gandhi to capitalize on the growing anger against British policies.

Divisions within British Strategy

• The British divided and ruled through tactics like divide and rule between different communities, especially Hindus and Muslims. Despite these efforts, Gandhi’s emphasis on unity and non-violence helped bridge these divides, uniting the nation under the banner of Indian nationalism.

Essay on the Quit India Movement of 1942

The Quit India Movement of 1942 was a defining moment in India’s struggle for independence. This movement, led by Mahatma Gandhi and initiated by the Indian National Congress (INC), aimed to end British colonial rule in India. The movement not only brought millions of Indians into active participation but also marked a significant shift in the nature of the Indian freedom struggle.

Background to the Quit India Movement

Context of World War II

• By 1942, World War II was in full swing, and Britain was heavily engaged in fighting. India, under British rule, had been forced into the war without consulting its people or their representatives.
• The British government’s response to demands for Indian self-rule had been largely dismissive, and the Indian political leadership, led by Mahatma Gandhi, was becoming increasingly frustrated with the British stance.

The Cripps Mission and Failure

• In 1942, the British sent Sir Stafford Cripps to India with a proposal for constitutional reforms. However, the Cripps Mission was seen as a failure. It offered India a vague promise of self-governance after the war, but it did not grant immediate independence or satisfy Indian demands for full sovereignty.
• This failure to address Indian aspirations fueled discontent and led Gandhi to call for a more direct action: a movement for immediate independence.

The Launch of the Quit India Movement

The Call for Quit India

• On August 8, 1942, at the Bombay session of the All India Congress Committee (AICC), Gandhi gave the famous slogan “Do or Die” and launched the Quit India Movement, demanding the British “Quit India” and leave the country.
• The slogan resonated deeply with millions of Indians, symbolizing their determination for freedom at any cost.

Objectives of the Movement

• The primary goal was to end British colonial rule immediately.
• The movement called for the withdrawal of British authority and the establishment of a national government that would be free to decide its own future.

The Course of the Quit India Movement

Mass Participation

• The Quit India Movement saw widespread participation across the country, with people from all walks of life, including students, workers, and peasants, joining in.
• Protests, strikes, and acts of civil disobedience were carried out throughout India. People expressed their anger through non-violent methods, as well as by resorting to violence in certain areas, particularly after the violent repression by the British.

Government Response

• The British responded with brutal repression. The British arrested Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru, and other INC leaders, effectively paralyzing the leadership of the movement.
• Despite the leadership being imprisoned, local leaders and masses continued to resist British rule in various forms, even in the absence of national direction.

Impact on British Control

• The Quit India Movement was significant in that it highlighted the widespread dissatisfaction with British rule and demonstrated that Indian nationalism was far from being pacified.
• The British government struggled to maintain control, especially with the lack of effective coordination between the colonial government and the British military forces.

Was the Quit India Movement Spontaneous?

Spontaneity of the Movement

• The Quit India Movement is often debated in terms of its spontaneity. On one hand, it was a planned and organized movement led by the Indian National Congress under the guidance of Mahatma Gandhi. The call for “Quit India” was a result of months of negotiations, particularly after the failure of the Cripps Mission.
• On the other hand, the masses’ response to the movement was spontaneous. Once the call for action was made, local leaders and common people across India rose to the occasion, protesting against the British in a spontaneous outpouring of defiance.

Non-Cooperation but No Formal Strategy

• Gandhi, although at the helm of the movement, emphasized that the movement would be peaceful, but many protests turned violent due to the repressive actions of the British.
• While the INC had a well-structured plan for non-cooperation, the scale of the protests, and the impromptu manner in which local resistance formed, showcased the spontaneity in the way the common people responded to the call.

Significance and Aftermath

Failure in Achieving Immediate Independence

• Although the Quit India Movement failed to achieve immediate independence, it marked a pivotal moment in the Indian freedom struggle.
• It exposed British weaknesses and left them unable to maintain their grip on India. The British realized that they could not continue ruling a country whose population was so deeply committed to independence.

The Legacy of the Movement

• The Quit India Movement inspired future generations of Indian nationalists and was a precursor to the final stages of India’s independence struggle.
• Even though the movement was crushed by British authorities, it had mobilized the masses and laid the groundwork for the eventual success of the Indian Independence Movement in 1947.

Chief Characteristics of Mauryan Art

The Mauryan Empire (circa 322–185 BCE), under the leadership of Chandragupta Maurya and his successors, marked a significant period in Indian history. The art and architecture from this era reflect the empire’s grandeur, its religious influences, and its advancements in various forms of artistic expression. Here are some key characteristics of Mauryan art:

1. Monumental Architecture

• Royal Edicts and Pillars: The Mauryan rulers were known for erecting large stone pillars, which are among the most significant examples of Mauryan art. These pillars, many of which were inscribed with royal edicts, symbolized the empire’s authority and governance.
  • Ashoka Pillars: The Ashoka Pillars are the most famous, with Ashoka’s Edicts carved into the stone, promoting principles of Dharma (moral law) and welfare. The Lion Capital of Ashoka, a sculpture atop one such pillar, is now the national emblem of India.
• Stupas and Monasteries: The Mauryas also patronized the building of stupas (mound-like structures containing relics of the Buddha) and monasteries for Buddhist monks. The Sanchi Stupa, built during Ashoka’s reign, is an excellent example of Mauryan architectural achievement.

2. Influence of Buddhism

• Buddhist Art: The Mauryan period saw the growth of Buddhism, which had a significant impact on art. The great stupas, like the Sanchi Stupa, were built to enshrine relics of the Buddha. These stupas were often adorned with sculptural reliefs depicting scenes from the life of the Buddha, symbolizing his teachings and life events.
• Buddhist Symbols: Buddhist symbols such as the wheel (Dharmachakra) and lotus are prevalent in the Mauryan art, representing the Buddha’s teachings and the spiritual path.

3. Use of Stone as a Primary Medium

• Stone Carving and Polishing: The Mauryas were known for their exceptional skill in stone carving and the polishing of stone surfaces. This technique was evident in both sculptures and architectural pieces.
  • Chunar sandstone was commonly used for creating pillars, sculptures, and other forms of art due to its durability and ease of carving.

4. Realistic Sculpture

• Animal and Human Figures: Mauryan art is also known for its realistic sculptures, especially those depicting animals. The Lion Capital of Ashoka, carved from polished sandstone, is an example of the Mauryan artistic emphasis on the animal world. The elephant capital and other figures show great attention to anatomical details.
• Human Figures: The human figures in Mauryan sculptures were often depicted with stiff postures. The Mauryan style of sculpture was more focused on royal and religious symbolism rather than naturalistic representation, especially in the case of human images.

5. Integration of Persian and Greek Styles

• Influence of Foreign Styles: The Mauryan art also exhibited influences from Persian and Greek styles due to India’s interactions with these cultures, particularly under the reign of Chandragupta Maurya and his descendants. This is evident in the aesthetic details of sculptures and architectural designs.
  • For example, the lion motif in Ashoka’s pillars has similarities to Persian animal depictions.

6. Simplicity and Grandeur

• Simplicity with Grandeur: Mauryan art is characterized by its simplicity in design and construction, but it is also grand in scale and execution. The pillars, stupas, and edicts were designed with a sense of monumental grandeur, symbolizing the power and religious ideology of the Mauryan rulers.

7. Buddhist Cave Art

• Early Buddhist Cave Architecture: The Mauryan period also witnessed the early development of cave architecture. The Barabar Caves (in Bihar), commissioned by Ashoka, are the earliest surviving examples of rock-cut caves, and their simple, unadorned interiors reflect the Buddhist ideals of austerity.

Key Examples of Mauryan Art

• Ashoka’s Edicts: Located throughout India, these inscriptions not only serve as royal declarations but also as significant examples of Mauryan art and governance.
• Sanchi Stupa: Although it was later expanded, its foundations and early development were heavily influenced by Mauryan style.
• Lion Capital of Ashoka: The iconic sculpture representing Ashoka’s authority and ideals of governance.

Origin, Membership, Development, and Objectives of QUAD

The Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (QUAD) is a strategic forum comprising four countries: the United States, India, Japan, and Australia. The group aims to promote security, economic growth, and a free and open Indo-Pacific region. Below is a detailed discussion on the origin, membership, development, objectives, and significance of QUAD for India.

1. Origin of QUAD

• Formation and Early History:
  • The idea of a quadrilateral security partnership was first mooted in 2007 by Shinzo Abe, the then Prime Minister of Japan. It was proposed as a way to foster security cooperation between the US, India, Japan, and Australia in the Indo-Pacific region.
  • The first QUAD meeting took place in 2007, but the initiative stalled soon after, primarily due to differences among the members regarding the depth of engagement and concerns over China’s reaction.
  • However, the concept was revived in 2017, driven by increasing geopolitical tensions, particularly due to China’s rising influence in the Indo-Pacific region. Since then, QUAD has gradually evolved into a more robust and focused strategic partnership.
• Key Developments:
  • In 2017, the four countries held their first formal meeting at the foreign minister level.
  • In 2021, the QUAD leaders held a virtual summit, marking a significant step toward deepening their cooperation.

2. Membership of QUAD

The members of QUAD include:

• United States: The US plays a pivotal role, bringing its military and economic power to the forum. It sees QUAD as essential for ensuring a free and open Indo-Pacific.
• India: India’s strategic location in the Indian Ocean and its role as a rising global power make it a central figure in QUAD. For India, QUAD provides an opportunity to counter China’s growing influence in the region.
• Japan: Japan, with its strong economic base and maritime capabilities, is crucial to the security aspect of QUAD, especially in ensuring freedom of navigation.
• Australia: Australia’s proximity to the Indo-Pacific region and its strategic interest in maintaining regional stability make it a vital member of QUAD.

3. Objectives of QUAD

QUAD’s core objectives include:

• Ensuring a Free and Open Indo-Pacific: The members aim to uphold freedom of navigation and overflight in international waters and airspace, particularly in the South China Sea, a region where China has been asserting territorial claims.
• Countering Regional Security Challenges: QUAD seeks to address security concerns, particularly those arising from China’s military build-up and aggressive actions in the Indo-Pacific region. This includes collaborating on defense issues and maritime security.
• Promoting Economic Prosperity: The group focuses on enhancing economic ties between member countries and other Indo-Pacific nations, ensuring that trade routes remain secure and open.
• Climate Change and Infrastructure Development: QUAD countries are also committed to tackling global challenges such as climate change, pandemic response, and infrastructure development in the region. In 2021, they announced the Quad Vaccine Initiative, aimed at providing COVID-19 vaccines to countries in the Indo-Pacific region.
• Collaborating on Technological Innovations: The members are also working to enhance cooperation in the fields of cyber security, digital infrastructure, and space technologies.

4. Significance of QUAD for India

For India, the QUAD holds significant geopolitical, security, and economic importance:

• Geopolitical and Security Cooperation:
  • QUAD provides India with an opportunity to enhance its strategic ties with leading global powers such as the United States and Japan. This partnership is particularly important as it offers a counterbalance to China’s increasing dominance in the region.
  • As a rising power in Asia, India’s participation in QUAD strengthens its influence in shaping the security architecture of the Indo-Pacific region.
• Economic Growth and Development:
  • By strengthening its ties with Japan, Australia, and the United States, India gains access to advanced technologies, trade opportunities, and investment in key sectors, including infrastructure, defense, and digital economies.
  • QUAD’s focus on infrastructure development and promoting resilience against future pandemics aligns with India’s development goals.
• Strategic Positioning:
  • India benefits from its role in QUAD by positioning itself as a key player in regional security, especially in maritime and defense matters. The group provides India with a platform to strengthen its defense capabilities, particularly through joint military exercises and collaborations.