dialectical materialism, a philosophical approach to reality derived from the writings of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. For Marx and Engels, materialism meant that the material world, perceptible to the senses, has objective reality independent of mind or spirit. They did not deny the reality of mental or spiritual processes but affirmed that ideas could arise, therefore, only as products and reflections of material conditions. Marx and Engels understood materialism as the opposite of idealism, by which they meant any theory that treats matter as dependent on mind or spirit, or mind or spirit as capable of existing independently of matter. For them, the materialist and idealist views were irreconcilably opposed throughout the historical development of philosophy. They adopted a thoroughgoing materialist approach, holding that any attempt to combine or reconcile materialism with idealism must result in confusion and inconsistency.

The Public Distribution System (PDS) is an Indian food security system which evolved as a system for the distribution of food grains and other essential items to low-income households at affordable prices and management of emergency situations. It is the largest food security scheme globally and covers almost 60% of the Indian population.

Challenges in the PDS:

• Identification of beneficiaries: In the beneficiary statistics, there are significant inclusion and exclusion errors of households that are Below Poverty Line (BPL) and Above Poverty Line (APL).
• Lack of reliable regular data and consistent government estimates of household actual income exacerbate the targeting issue.
• Corruption and leakages: There have been widespread reports of corruption and leakages in the PDS, with middlemen and corrupt officials diverting subsidized goods for sale in the open market or selling them at higher prices to beneficiaries.
• Rising Subsidy and financial burden: The cost of obtaining and shipping food grains is almost six times their retail price, which raises questions about the sustainability of the scheme

The Public Distribution System (PDS) is an Indian food security system which evolved as a system for the distribution of food grains and other essential items to low-income households at affordable prices and management of emergency situations. It is the largest food security scheme globally and covers almost 60% of the Indian population.

Challenges in the PDS:

Identification of beneficiaries: In the beneficiary statistics, there are significant inclusion and exclusion errors of households that are Below Poverty Line (BPL) and Above Poverty Line (APL).

Lack of reliable regular data and consistent government estimates of household actual income exacerbate the targeting issue.

Corruption and leakages: There have been widespread reports of corruption and leakages in the PDS, with middlemen and corrupt officials diverting subsidized goods for sale in the open market or selling them at higher prices to beneficiaries.

(i) Himalayas are called young fold mountains as they are formed by folding process and still process of folding is going on .

(ii) They got folded into three parallel range-The greater Himalayas, the lesser Himalayas and the Shivalika.

(iii) They have all prominent peaks which are snow covered almost throughout the year. So, Himalayas are geologically young and structurally fold mountains stretch over the Northern borders of India.