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Home/upsc: modern history events before 1857/Page 2

Mains Answer Writing Latest Questions

Aastha Kapoor
  • 1
Aastha KapoorBegginer
Asked: August 7, 2024In:
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Analyze how the Revolt of 1857 affected the political and administrative restructuring of Indian British colonial rule.

upsc: modern history events before 1857
  1. Mehak Mehara
    Mehak Mehara Begginer

    The Impact of the Revolt of 1857: A Turning Point in British Colonial Rule Introduction: The Revolt of 1857, also known as the Sepoy Mutiny, was a significant event in Indian history that had far-reaching consequences for the administrative and political reorganization of British colonial rule in InRead more

    The Impact of the Revolt of 1857: A Turning Point in British Colonial Rule

    Introduction: The Revolt of 1857, also known as the Sepoy Mutiny, was a significant event in Indian history that had far-reaching consequences for the administrative and political reorganization of British colonial rule in India.

    Administrative Reorganization:

    • The Government of India Act, 1858: The revolt led to the establishment of the Government of India Act, 1858, which replaced the East India Company’s rule with the British Crown’s direct rule over India.
    • The Viceroy’s Council: The Act also established the Viceroy’s Council, which consisted of British officials and was responsible for making decisions on behalf of the British government.
    • Provincial Administration: The provinces of India were reorganized into smaller units, with each province having a governor and a council to assist him.

    Political Reorganization:

    • The British Raj: The revolt marked the beginning of the British Raj, which lasted until India gained independence in 1947.
    • The Queen’s Proclamation: The British Queen issued a proclamation in 1858, which promised to respect Indian culture, traditions, and institutions, while also introducing British laws and institutions.
    • The Indian Councils Acts: The Indian Councils Acts of 1861 and 1892 introduced elected representatives from India to the councils, which further increased British control over Indian affairs.

    Recent Examples:

    • The 2019 Citizenship Amendment Act (CAA): The CAA, which was passed by the Indian Parliament in 2019, has been seen as a response to the growing concerns about the impact of colonialism on India’s identity and sovereignty.
    • The 2020 National Education Policy (NEP): The NEP, which was announced in 2020, aims to promote Indian knowledge systems and cultural heritage, while also integrating Indian values with modern education.

    Key Points:

    • The Revolt of 1857 was a turning point in British colonial rule: The revolt marked a significant shift in the nature of British colonial rule in India, from a company-led administration to a Crown-controlled government.
    • Administrative and political reorganization: The revolt led to significant changes in the administrative and political structures of British colonial rule in India.
    • Impact on Indian society: The revolt had a profound impact on Indian society, leading to changes in social dynamics, cultural identity, and economic relationships.
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Rajashree Shirke
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Rajashree ShirkeLearner
Asked: January 25, 2025In:
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Roadmap for Answer Writing Introduction Briefly introduce the Sikh Empire and its significance under Maharaja Ranjit Singh. State the purpose of the answer: to explore the factors behind its rise and decline, and the enduring legacy of the empire. Body I. Factors Contributing to the ...

upsc: modern history events before 1857
  1. Team
    Best Answer
    Team Supreme

    Model Answer Factors Contributing to the Rise Strong Leadership: Maharaja Ranjit Singh’s charismatic leadership united the twelve misls (confederacies) of Punjab, such as the Phulkian and Kanhaiya misls. His conquests of key territories, including Multan (1818) and Kashmir (1819), solidified his conRead more

    Model Answer

    Factors Contributing to the Rise

    1. Strong Leadership: Maharaja Ranjit Singh’s charismatic leadership united the twelve misls (confederacies) of Punjab, such as the Phulkian and Kanhaiya misls. His conquests of key territories, including Multan (1818) and Kashmir (1819), solidified his control.
    2. Military Modernization: Ranjit Singh modernized his army by hiring European officers like General Ventura. He equipped his forces with advanced weaponry, including the Zamzama gun, enhancing military effectiveness.
    3. Administrative Reforms: He centralized authority and appointed capable generals, such as Hari Singh Nalwa, for territorial expansion and efficient governance. Revenue reforms boosted economic prosperity.
    4. Diplomatic Skills: Ranjit Singh skillfully navigated the geopolitical landscape, forming strategic alliances with the British that helped maintain stability within the empire.
    5. Economic Policies: His focus on agriculture, exemplified by the construction of canals like the Bari Doab Canal, led to significant economic growth and stability.

    Factors Contributing to Decline

    1. Succession Issues: After Ranjit Singh’s death, the absence of a clear successor resulted in internal strife, particularly due to the influence of the Dogra brothers, undermining central authority.
    2. External Threats: The First Anglo-Sikh War (1845-1846) was fueled by territorial disputes, leading to the Treaty of Lahore and significant territorial losses to the British.
    3. Internal Intrigues: Power struggles, including the assassination of Prime Minister Raja Dhian Singh in 1843, weakened the empire from within.
    4. Loss of Territory: The annexation of Punjab after the Second Anglo-Sikh War (1848-1849) marked a critical decline as the British incorporated the region into British India.
    5. Colonial Influence: The expanding power of the British East India Company exploited vulnerabilities in the Sikh Empire, facilitating its eventual annexation.

    Enduring Legacy

    Despite its fall in 1849, the Sikh Empire’s legacy remains influential:

    1. Sikh Identity: The empire symbolizes Sikh unity and sovereignty, inspiring contemporary movements for recognition and rights.
    2. Architectural Heritage: Monuments like the Golden Temple and Lahore Fort reflect the unique Sikh aesthetic and continue to inspire awe.
    3. Military Folklore: Stories of Sikh bravery under leaders like Hari Singh Nalwa are celebrated in folklore and literature, maintaining a militarized identity.
    4. Administrative Influence: The British retained many administrative structures established by Ranjit Singh, ensuring stability in post-annexation governance.
    5. Cultural Commemoration: The “Lion of Punjab” is celebrated in books, films, and statues, keeping the memory of the Sikh Empire alive in public discourse.

    In conclusion, Ranjit Singh’s leadership established a powerful Sikh state that left a lasting impact on the region’s history and culture.

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Disha Srivastava
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Disha SrivastavaBegginer
Asked: August 7, 2024In:
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Examine the influence of social and religious reform movements, such as the Bengal Renaissance, on the intellectual landscape of nineteenth-century India.

upsc: modern history events before 1857
  1. Nandani Naina
    Nandani Naina Begginer

    The Bengal Renaissance and the Intellectual Landscape of 19th-century India The Bengal Renaissance: The Bengal Renaissance was a cultural and intellectual movement that emerged in the late 18th and early 19th centuries in Bengal, India. It was characterized by a renewed interest in Indian culture, lRead more

    The Bengal Renaissance and the Intellectual Landscape of 19th-century India

    The Bengal Renaissance:

    The Bengal Renaissance was a cultural and intellectual movement that emerged in the late 18th and early 19th centuries in Bengal, India. It was characterized by a renewed interest in Indian culture, language, and philosophy, as well as a desire to modernize and Westernize Indian society.

    Key Figures:

    1. Raja Ram Mohan Roy: A pioneer of the Bengal Renaissance, Roy was a key figure in the Hindu reform movement and the establishment of the Brahmo Samaj.
    2. Isaac Milton: A Christian missionary and scholar, Milton was instrumental in translating Indian texts into English and promoting Western education in India.
    3. Henry Derozio: A Portuguese-Indian scholar and educator, Derozio was a key figure in the establishment of the Hindu College and the promotion of Western education in India.

    Key Movements:

    1. Hindu Reform Movement: The Hindu Reform Movement aimed to modernize and Westernize Indian society, while also promoting a more liberal and tolerant interpretation of Hinduism.
    2. Brahmo Samaj: Founded by Raja Ram Mohan Roy, the Brahmo Samaj was a religious movement that aimed to reform Hinduism and promote a more rational and scientific approach to spirituality.
    3. Christian Missionaries: Christian missionaries played a significant role in promoting Western education and values in India, while also converting many Indians to Christianity.

    Impact on Intellectual Landscape:

    1. Promotion of Education: The Bengal Renaissance led to the establishment of educational institutions, such as the Hindu College, which promoted Western education and values in India.
    2. Promotion of Indian Culture: The Bengal Renaissance also led to a renewed interest in Indian culture, language, and philosophy, which helped to preserve Indian cultural heritage.
    3. Fusion of Eastern and Western Thought: The Bengal Renaissance saw the fusion of Eastern and Western thought, with Indian scholars incorporating Western ideas and methods into their own work.
    4. Development of Modern Indian Literature: The Bengal Renaissance also saw the development of modern Indian literature, with writers such as Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay and Rabindranath Tagore making significant contributions.
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Team
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TeamSupreme
Asked: August 9, 2024In:
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Roadmap for Answer Writing 1. Introduction Overview of the Indian Renaissance: Define the Indian Renaissance as a period of social, religious, and intellectual awakening in the 19th century. Highlight its significance in laying the foundation for national identity in India. Thesis Statement: Introduce the focus ...

upsc: modern history events before 1857
  1. Team
    Best Answer
    Team Supreme

    Model Answer Introduction The 'Indian Renaissance' of the 19th century marked a significant period of social, religious, and intellectual awakening, playing a crucial role in shaping the national identity of India. This era saw the rise of reform movements, a revival of Indian culture, and the estabRead more

    Model Answer

    Introduction

    The ‘Indian Renaissance’ of the 19th century marked a significant period of social, religious, and intellectual awakening, playing a crucial role in shaping the national identity of India. This era saw the rise of reform movements, a revival of Indian culture, and the establishment of a modern education system, all contributing to the burgeoning sense of Indian nationalism.

    Key Elements of the Indian Renaissance

    1. Social and Religious Reform Movements

    The 19th century witnessed various movements aimed at addressing social issues such as caste discrimination and harmful traditional practices. Reformers like Raja Ram Mohan Roy and Jyotirao Phule led efforts to promote social unity and pride in Indian culture, laying the groundwork for national identity formation. Their work helped to foster a collective consciousness among diverse groups within India, which was essential for the emergence of nationalism.

    2. Rediscovery of Indian Culture and Heritage

    Leaders such as Swami Vivekananda and Bal Gangadhar Tilak emphasized cultural revival as a means to build national pride. They highlighted the importance of India’s rich heritage and shared history, which helped forge a sense of belonging and identity among Indians. This cultural awakening played a vital role in uniting people against colonial rule.

    3. Development of Modern Education

    The introduction of modern education, led by Western-educated Indians, facilitated social and political discourse. This new educational framework inspired many to challenge colonial authority and aspire for self-governance, further fueling the growth of national identity.

    4. Influence of Prominent Leaders and Organizations

    Organizations such as the Brahmo Samaj, Arya Samaj, and the Theosophical Society played pivotal roles in advocating for social reforms and cultural revival. Influential figures like Annie Besant and Raja Ram Mohan Roy were instrumental in promoting an intellectual renaissance that strengthened national consciousness.

    Conclusion

    The connections between the Indian Renaissance and the emergence of national identity were fundamental in laying the groundwork for the Indian freedom struggle, ultimately culminating in India’s independence. The period fostered a collective identity that transcended regional and communal boundaries, uniting diverse groups in the quest for a free and sovereign nation.

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Team
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TeamSupreme
Asked: August 9, 2024In:
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Analyze the connections between the “Indian Renaissance” of the nineteenth century and the formation of national identity. (250 words) [UPSC 2019]

upsc: modern history events before 1857
  1. Geeta Pandit
    Geeta Pandit Learner

    The 19th century 'Indian Renaissance' and the emergence of national identity in India had strong linkages: Intellectual awakening: The Renaissance was marked by an intellectual and cultural awakening among the educated Indians. Thinkers like Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, and othersRead more

    The 19th century ‘Indian Renaissance’ and the emergence of national identity in India had strong linkages:

    1. Intellectual awakening: The Renaissance was marked by an intellectual and cultural awakening among the educated Indians. Thinkers like Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, and others rediscovered India’s rich cultural heritage and promoted ideas of social and religious reforms. This laid the foundation for a sense of shared Indian identity.
    2. Critiquing colonial rule: The Renaissance thinkers were critical of colonial rule and the exploitation of India by the British. Their writings and public discourse highlighted the need for self-governance and liberation from colonial subjugation. This anti-colonial sentiment fostered a common nationalist sentiment.
    3. Reviving Indian languages: The Renaissance witnessed a renewed emphasis on Indian languages like Bengali, Hindi, and others. Writers and poets used these languages to express Indian cultural ethos and nationalist ideas, connecting the masses to the emerging national movement.
    4. Social and religious reforms: Reformers like Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, and Jyotiba Phule worked towards eradicating social evils like sati, caste discrimination, and women’s oppression. These efforts strengthened social cohesion and a shared sense of Indian identity.
    5. Emergence of press and public discourse: The 19th century saw the rise of an Indian press that became a platform for nationalist ideas and discourse. Newspapers, journals, and periodicals played a crucial role in shaping public opinion and mobilizing support for the national movement.
    6. Growth of modern education: The establishment of modern educational institutions, like universities and schools, exposed Indians to Western ideas of nationalism, democracy, and liberalism. This influenced the Indian intelligentsia and catalyzed the emergence of national consciousness.

    In essence, the 19th century Renaissance catalyzed the evolution of a distinct Indian identity by reviving cultural pride, fostering social reforms, and cultivating nationalist sentiments. This paved the way for the emergence of a cohesive national movement in the 20th century, which ultimately led to India’s independence from colonial rule.

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Disha Srivastava
  • 1
Disha SrivastavaBegginer
Asked: August 7, 2024In:
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Analyze the socioeconomic and political causes that contributed to the Mughal Empire’s decline in the 18th century.

upsc: modern history events before 1857
  1. Mehak Mehara
    Mehak Mehara Begginer

    The Decline of the Mughal Empire: A Complex Story Background: The Mughal Empire, which was founded by Babur in 1526, was one of the most powerful and prosperous empires in Indian history. However, by the 18th century, the empire began to decline, leading to its eventual disintegration. Socio-EconomiRead more

    The Decline of the Mughal Empire: A Complex Story

    Background: The Mughal Empire, which was founded by Babur in 1526, was one of the most powerful and prosperous empires in Indian history. However, by the 18th century, the empire began to decline, leading to its eventual disintegration.

    Socio-Economic Factors:

    1. Decline of Agriculture: The Mughal Empire’s agricultural sector, which was the backbone of its economy, began to decline due to factors such as soil degradation, lack of investment, and the exhaustion of fertile land.
    2. Trade and Commerce: The Mughal Empire’s trade and commerce networks, which were once the envy of other empires, began to decline due to the rise of European colonial powers and the decline of the silk and spice routes.
    3. Taxation and Economic Burden: The Mughal Empire’s taxation system, which was once efficient and fair, became increasingly burdensome and unfair, leading to widespread discontent among the population.

    Political Factors:

    1. Succession Crisis: The Mughal Empire faced a succession crisis in the 18th century, with multiple claimants to the throne leading to internal conflict and instability.
    2. Maratha and Afghan Invasions: The Mughal Empire faced invasions from the Marathas and Afghans, which weakened its military power and led to further decline.
    3. Regionalism and Provincialization: The Mughal Empire’s central authority began to decline, leading to regionalization and provincialization of power, which weakened its overall strength.

    Recent Examples:

    • The British East India Company’s Rise: The rise of the British East India Company in the 18th century marked the beginning of European colonialism in India, which further weakened the Mughal Empire.
    • The Maratha Empire’s Rise: The Maratha Empire, which was founded by Shivaji in 1674, rose to power in the 18th century and eventually challenged the Mughal Empire’s dominance.
    • The Afghan Invasion: The Afghan invasion of India in 1757 led to the Battle of Plassey, which marked a significant turning point in the decline of the Mughal Empire.

    Key Points:

    • Complexity of Factors: The decline of the Mughal Empire was a complex process that was driven by multiple socio-economic and political factors.
    • Interconnectedness: The factors that contributed to the decline of the Mughal Empire were interconnected and interdependent, making it difficult to identify a single cause.
    • Catalytic Role: The external factors, such as European colonialism and Afghan invasions, played a catalytic role in accelerating the decline of the Mughal Empire.
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Adheesh Raman
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Adheesh RamanLearner
Asked: January 4, 2025In:
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Roadmap for Answer Writing 1. Introduction Begin by briefly explaining the context: Tribal movements in India started as a resistance to the exploitative policies of British colonialism, which disrupted the traditional life of tribal communities and their close connection to land and ...

upsc: modern history events before 1857
  1. Team
    Best Answer
    Team Supreme

    Model Answer Tribal Movements in India: A Reaction to British Colonial Policies The tribal movements in India, which began in the late 18th century and continued until independence, were direct responses to the oppressive colonial policies of the British government. The tribal communities in India,Read more

    Model Answer

    Tribal Movements in India: A Reaction to British Colonial Policies

    The tribal movements in India, which began in the late 18th century and continued until independence, were direct responses to the oppressive colonial policies of the British government. The tribal communities in India, divided into non-frontier and frontier tribes, saw their traditional way of life disrupted by British policies. Notable groups that participated in these movements included the Khonds, Savaras, Santhals, Mundas, Oraons, Koyas, Kols, Gonds, and Bhils.

    Imposition of Land Revenue Settlements

    One of the primary reasons for tribal unrest was the British introduction of the Zamindari system, along with new land revenue and taxation policies. This system undermined the tribes’ traditional land ownership, creating economic disparities within previously egalitarian societies. The Munda rebellion arose in direct response to these changes, as the community sought to reclaim their lost land rights (Source: Historical records on Munda uprisings).

    Exploitation by Outsiders

    British rule also brought in moneylenders, revenue farmers, and traders who exploited tribal lands and forced them into debt. This economic exploitation led to the Santhal rebellion, as tribals who had lost their lands became laborers or tenants on their ancestral lands (Source: Santhal revolt archives).

    Restriction of Forest Rights

    The Forest Act of 1865 and the Indian Forest Act of 1927 declared forests as state property, restricting tribal access to resources they traditionally depended on. These restrictions led to large-scale displacement and were a direct cause of the Kol, Bastar, and Rampa rebellions (Source: Forest Act documentation).

    Cultural and Religious Suppression

    Christian missionaries introduced by the British were seen as threats to tribal customs and beliefs. This intrusion, coupled with the British “civilizing mission”, led tribal leaders like Birsa Munda to oppose these influences, often by attacking symbols of foreign culture, such as churches (Source: Birsa Munda writings).

    Oppressive Systems and the Rise of Tribal Identity

    British authorities, along with Zamindars and police, enforced an oppressive system that dispossessed tribals of property and subjected them to various forms of abuse. This constant oppression strengthened the tribal identity and ultimately contributed to the Indian freedom struggle and post-independence reforms.

    Thus, the tribal revolts reflected a complex reaction to colonial policies that threatened their land, culture, and identity.

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Laila Mehta
  • 1
Laila MehtaBegginer
Asked: August 7, 2024In:
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Examine the elements that influenced the emergence of nationalist sentiment and the early expressions of the Indian independence movement.

upsc: modern history events before 1857
  1. Abhar Indorkar
    Abhar Indorkar

    Indian Independence movement began to take shape in its nascent form during the early part of the 18th and 19th centuries before developing into a mass movement in the 20th century. Factors for rise of national sentiment and early manifestation of Indian Independence movement includes: Political disRead more

    Indian Independence movement began to take shape in its nascent form during the early part of the 18th and 19th centuries before developing into a mass movement in the 20th century.

    Factors for rise of national sentiment and early manifestation of Indian Independence movement includes:

    1. Political disintegration: British policies such as Doctrine of Lapse displaced the local rulers and disturbed political loyalties and alliances. This created distrust and disaffection towards the British.
    2. Social disharmony: The indiscriminate destruction of the Indian justice systems and perpetuating decay of religious systems led to destruction of social fabric.
    3. Economic distress: The agriculture productivity decreased and exploitative revenue and taxation policies of the colonisers impoverished the agriculturalists.
    4. Cultural alienation: English language was promoted in education and employment replacing local languages which led to loss of indigenous knowledge systems and cultural identities.
    5. Influential leaders: Leaders such as Raja Rammohun Roy, Maharani Laxmi Bai, Tantya Tope, etc. emerged on to the national scene to awaken the conscience of the Indian people.
    6. Inspiration from abroad: The French Revolution and European Revolutions of 1848, inspired generation of people to struggle for their rights. Also, the rise of Japan gave confidence to Indians.
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Team
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TeamSupreme
Asked: August 1, 2024In:
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Roadmap for Answer Writing 1. Introduction Briefly introduce the British East India Company (EIC) and its role in India. State the paradox of Indian soldiers fighting against their own rulers and the significance of their victories. 2. Key Factors for Success Military Strategy and Organization: ...

upsc: modern history events before 1857
  1. Team
    Best Answer
    Team Supreme

    Model Answer Introduction The British East India Company (EIC) achieved consistent victories against the larger and better-equipped armies of Indian rulers due to several critical factors: 1. Military Strategy and Organization The EIC adopted modern military tactics and effectively utilized combinedRead more

    Model Answer

    Introduction

    The British East India Company (EIC) achieved consistent victories against the larger and better-equipped armies of Indian rulers due to several critical factors:

    1. Military Strategy and Organization

    The EIC adopted modern military tactics and effectively utilized combined arms, which allowed them to outmaneuver Indian forces. For example, during the Battle of Plassey, EIC troops defeated a larger army through superior organization and strategy.

    2. Diplomacy and Espionage

    The EIC employed diplomacy and espionage to create divisions among Indian rulers. They often conspired with discontented factions within Indian armies, as seen in the Battle of Plassey, where they ensured the non-cooperation of a key officer in Siraj-ud-Daulah’s forces .

    3. Control of Resources

    The EIC’s dominance in maritime trade enabled them to control vital resources, including money and supplies, which were crucial for financing their military campaigns .

    4. Political Fragmentation

    Indian states were politically fragmented and engaged in rivalries, making it easier for the British to implement a “divide and rule” strategy. They formed alliances with certain Indian factions to counter stronger opponents, such as during the Anglo-Mysore Wars against Tipu Sultan .

    5. Technological Advantage

    The EIC possessed advanced weaponry, including flintlock muskets and field artillery, while many Indian armies relied on outdated equipment. This technological edge was evident in battles like Wandiwash .

    6. Role of Indian Soldiers

    The EIC extensively recruited Indian soldiers, who were often more loyal to their paymasters than to their native rulers. This reliance on Indian mercenaries provided the EIC with a significant manpower advantage .

    Conclusion

    The combination of superior military tactics, effective diplomacy, control of resources, and the exploitation of political divisions allowed the British East India Company to consistently defeat the more numerous armies of Indian rulers, leading to their dominance in India for nearly two centuries.

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TeamSupreme
Asked: August 6, 2024In:
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औपनिवेशिक भारत की अठारहवीं शताब्दी के मध्य से क्यों अकाल पड़ने में अचानक वृद्धि देखने को मिलती है ? कारण बताएँ। (150 words)[UPSC 2022]

upsc: modern history events before 1857
  1. Ila Saxena
    Ila Saxena Begginer

    अठारहवीं शताब्दी के मध्य से औपनिवेशिक भारत में अकाल की घटनाओं में अचानक वृद्धि के पीछे कई प्रमुख कारण हैं: आर्थिक नीतियां: ब्रिटिश ईस्ट इंडिया कंपनी की आर्थिक नीतियों ने भारतीय कृषि पर नकारात्मक प्रभाव डाला। उच्च करों और अनिवार्य कृषि उत्पादन की नीतियों ने किसानों की स्थिति को कमजोर किया और अकाल कीRead more

    अठारहवीं शताब्दी के मध्य से औपनिवेशिक भारत में अकाल की घटनाओं में अचानक वृद्धि के पीछे कई प्रमुख कारण हैं:

    1. आर्थिक नीतियां: ब्रिटिश ईस्ट इंडिया कंपनी की आर्थिक नीतियों ने भारतीय कृषि पर नकारात्मक प्रभाव डाला। उच्च करों और अनिवार्य कृषि उत्पादन की नीतियों ने किसानों की स्थिति को कमजोर किया और अकाल की स्थिति को बढ़ावा दिया।
    2. भू-स्वामित्व परिवर्तन: ब्रिटिश राज के तहत भूमि सुधारों और जमींदारी प्रणाली ने भूमि के स्वामित्व को बदल दिया। जमींदारों और ब्रिटिश अधिकारियों के प्रति किसानों की निर्भरता बढ़ गई, जिससे खाद्य उत्पादन में कमी आई।
    3. विपरीत मौसम स्थितियाँ: ब्रिटिश काल के दौरान मौसम की विपरीत स्थितियों, जैसे कि असामान्य सूखा या अत्यधिक बारिश, ने फसल उत्पादन को प्रभावित किया और अकाल की घटनाओं को बढ़ाया।
    4. विपणन और वितरण प्रणाली: खाद्य वस्तुओं की आपूर्ति और वितरण की असुविधाजनक प्रणाली ने अकाल के समय राहत प्रयासों को प्रभावित किया, जिससे स्थिति और बिगड़ गई।

    इन कारणों से अठारहवीं शताब्दी के मध्य से भारत में अकाल की घटनाओं में उल्लेखनीय वृद्धि देखी गई।

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On: April 18, 2025 Comments: 0

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