Model Answer

Local bodies, such as municipalities and panchayats, play a crucial role in disaster risk mitigation in India due to their proximity to communities and their understanding of local needs. They are essential in coordinating and implementing disaster risk reduction measures effectively.

Pre-Disaster Phase

1. Resource Mapping: Local bodies initiate resource mapping to identify facilities suitable for disaster management. For instance, they can designate temporary shelters for evacuated individuals and ensure the availability of food, water, and medical supplies.
2. Vulnerability Mapping: Regular vulnerability assessments help local bodies understand the risks specific to their areas. This ongoing process allows them to update their disaster preparedness strategies accordingly.
3. Early Warning Systems: Local authorities can establish early warning systems. A notable example is the Brihanmumbai Municipal Corporation, which has installed flood sensors throughout Mumbai to monitor water levels and issue timely warnings during heavy rainfall.

During Disaster

1. Disaster Response: Local bodies act as first responders during disasters. In the 2018 Kerala floods, local governments were pivotal in rescue and relief operations, setting up temporary shelters for those affected.
2. Community Support: They can initiate community kitchens to provide food and ensure medical services are accessible. Local governments often coordinate with private medical practitioners to organize medical camps for the affected population.

Post-Disaster Recovery

1. Coordination of Recovery Efforts: Local bodies facilitate collaboration among government departments, NGOs, and community organizations to provide livelihood support and restore essential infrastructure.
2. Disaster Management Plans: The Ministry of Panchayati Raj has released a Disaster Management Plan (DMP) to enhance local bodies’ capabilities in disaster risk reduction, emphasizing the importance of planning and community involvement.

By empowering local authorities through regulatory and financial means, as advocated by the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (2015-2030), India can significantly enhance its disaster resilience at the community level.

Model Answer

The National Disaster Response Force (NDRF) plays a crucial role in disaster management in India, having saved over 148,000 lives and evacuated more than 700,000 individuals since its inception. However, it faces several key challenges in executing its responsibilities effectively.

Key Challenges

1. Inadequate Capital Expenditure: The budget for capital expenditure has been declining, hindering the development of necessary infrastructure and capacity for NDRF battalions.
2. Low Training Budget: The allocation for training NDRF personnel has remained low, between Rs. 1 to 2 crore, with actual utilization ranging from 50% to 80%. This limits the ability to provide modern training facilities that meet international standards.
3. Increased Operational Demands: NDRF personnel are increasingly engaged in a wide range of rescue operations, from minor incidents to major disasters, which strains their resources and capabilities.
4. Lack of Continuity: As a 100% deputationist force, personnel serve for only seven years, leading to a lack of continuity and institutional knowledge within the organization.
5. Insufficient Equipment: There is a significant shortage of critical equipment, which hampers the NDRF’s ability to respond effectively and quickly to disasters.
6. Dual Control Structure: The ambiguity in command and control, with the Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) managing funds and execution while the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) has administrative control, complicates decision-making and response times.

Measures to Enhance Effectiveness

1. Review of Personnel Structure: While the deputationist model is beneficial, incorporating trained youth from other organizations, such as NCC cadets, could enhance operational capacity.
2. Financial Cooperation: Establishing Permanent Disaster Management Funds and ensuring regular contributions from state and central budgets can address financial constraints.
3. Training Infrastructure Investment: Specific budget allocations should be made for upgrading training facilities and procuring state-of-the-art equipment to meet international standards.
4. Timely Equipment Procurement: A systematic review and expedited procurement of necessary equipment should be prioritized to ensure readiness.
5. Community Capacity Building: Enhancing disaster response capabilities at the state and community levels is essential, as the frequency of disasters is increasing.
6. Pre-positioning of Forces: Developing a strategy for pre-positioning response teams at critical locations can improve resource availability during emergencies.

By addressing these challenges and implementing these measures, the NDRF can significantly enhance its effectiveness in disaster response and recovery.

Roadmap for Answer Writing

1. Introduction

• Briefly introduce the National Disaster Response Force (NDRF) and its purpose under the Disaster Management Act of 2005.
• State the importance of NDRF in disaster management in India.

2. Key Challenges Faced by NDRF :

• Inadequate Capital Expenditure
  • Explain how declining budgets affect infrastructure and capacity building.
• Low Budget for Training
  • Discuss the insufficient allocation for training personnel and its impact on readiness.
• Increased Operational Demands
  • Describe how the growing variety of rescue operations strains resources.
• Lack of Continuity
  • Highlight the effects of a 100% deputationist model on institutional knowledge and experience.
• Insufficient Equipment
  • Mention the shortage of critical equipment and how it hampers response capabilities.
• Dual Control Structure
  • Explain the complications arising from having two different authorities (MHA and NDMA) managing NDRF.

3. Measures to Improve Effectiveness :

• Review of Personnel Structure
  • Suggest diversifying the personnel structure to include trained youth from other organizations.
• Financial Cooperation
  • Propose establishing Permanent Disaster Management Funds and regular contributions to enhance financial resources.
• Investment in Training Infrastructure
  • Recommend specific budget allocations for upgrading training facilities and equipment.
• Timely Equipment Procurement
  • Suggest a systematic review and expedited procurement process for essential equipment.
• Community Capacity Building
  • Emphasize the need to enhance local disaster response capabilities.
• Pre-positioning of Response Forces
  • Recommend strategies for pre-positioning teams in critical areas to improve disaster readiness.

4. Conclusion :

• Summarize the challenges and proposed measures.
• Highlight the significance of improving NDRF’s effectiveness for better disaster management in India.

Relevant Facts and Sources

1. NDRF Achievements: “NDRF has saved over 1.48 lakh human lives and evacuated over 7 lakh stranded individuals since its inception.” (Source: NDRF Reports)
2. Inadequate Capital Expenditure: “The actual expenditure in the capital sector has shown a declining trend over the years.” (Source: Government Budget Reports)
3. Training Budget: “Provision for training NDRF personnel has remained low at Rs. 1 to 2 crore, with utilization between 50% to 80%.” (Source: Budget Estimates Analysis)
4. Operational Demands: “NDRF personnel are engaged in a varied range of rescue situations, which is increasing daily.” (Source: NDRF Reports)
5. Dual Control Structure: “NDRF operates under the dual control of the Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) and the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA).” (Source: Disaster Management Act, 2005)
6. Equipment Shortages: “There is a significant shortage of almost all items authorized for NDRF, affecting response capabilities.” (Source: NDRF Internal Reports)

Using this roadmap and the relevant facts, you can construct a comprehensive answer addressing the challenges and proposed solutions for enhancing the effectiveness of the NDRF.

Model Answer

Land-use change refers to human-induced modifications to the landscape, often for economic or developmental purposes. In India, rapid and often unsustainable land-use changes have heightened the frequency and intensity of natural disasters.

1. Urbanization and Concretization

Urbanization in India has led to the conversion of wetlands, forests, and hillslopes into impervious concrete surfaces. This disrupts natural drainage systems, increasing surface runoff, and exacerbating flooding. For instance, recent urban floods in cities like Mumbai, Delhi, and Kerala have been partly attributed to the encroachment of wetlands and deforestation, which had previously acted as natural flood buffers. Additionally, such land-use changes reduce groundwater recharge, making regions more vulnerable to droughts during dry spells.

2. Deforestation

The widespread deforestation to accommodate agricultural expansion and urban development contributes to the disruption of ecosystems that naturally regulate water flow. This has led to an increased risk of floods, soil erosion, and the occurrence of extreme weather events such as heatwaves and cyclones. Loss of forests also diminishes the resilience of local environments to climate change, thus intensifying the impacts of natural disasters.

3. Large-Scale Infrastructure Projects

Infrastructure projects, including large hydroelectric dams, roads, and railways, have resulted in habitat destruction and land degradation. For example, hydropower projects disrupt river ecosystems, potentially causing flash floods, Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs), and landslides. Construction in mountainous areas, particularly for tourism, has led to significant landslides and road damage, as seen in Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh.

4. Coastal and Floodplain Construction

Illegal construction along floodplains and coastal areas increases exposure to flooding, coastal erosion, and storm surges. For example, unauthorized constructions in Punjab’s Ghaggar and Sutlej floodplains have led to devastating floods. Similarly, land reclamation in coastal areas makes communities more vulnerable to sea-level rise and tsunamis.

5. Agricultural Practices

Mono-cropping practices reduce crop diversity, making agriculture more susceptible to pests and diseases. This reduces food security and exacerbates vulnerability to droughts, contributing to economic and environmental disasters.

Conclusion

Sustainable land-use planning, including zoning regulations, reforestation, and comprehensive environmental impact assessments, is essential to mitigate the impact of these land-use changes and the natural disasters they fuel.

Model Answer

Introduction

Heat Action Plans (HAPs) are designed by Indian authorities to protect vulnerable populations from the harmful effects of heat waves. Initiated in 2013 by Ahmedabad, these plans aim to provide targeted measures, including early warnings and resource mobilization, to safeguard people during extreme heat events.

Strengths of HAPs

• Wide Implementation: The Indian government has extended HAPs to 23 states and over 130 cities, incorporating localized plans for heat wave-prone regions.
• Public Awareness: Heat wave alerts are disseminated through various platforms, including mobile-based advisories and media campaigns, providing some level of public awareness.

Key Issues Impacting Effectiveness

1. Inadequate Vulnerability Identification: Many HAPs fail to identify vulnerable populations based on localized assessments. For instance, while Kerala recognized delivery agents and indoor workers as at risk, other regions did not address the needs of these groups (Centre for Policy Research).
2. Lack of Reliable Risk Assessments: Vulnerability and risk assessments are often missing or insufficient, leading to inefficient distribution of resources and delayed responses to heat waves. There is a lack of tailored interventions for workers, such as farm laborers, who are significantly affected.
3. Accessibility Challenges: While technological solutions like mobile-based heat advisories are introduced, there is little attention to accessibility issues. Mobile ownership and literacy rates, especially among women and vulnerable groups, are not adequately considered, reducing the reach of advisories.
4. Short-Term Focus: The current focus is mostly on short-term measures, such as adjusting school and work timings. Long-term solutions, such as encouraging adaptive agricultural practices or infrastructure changes, are rarely addressed.
5. Lack of Incentives: HAPs lack effective accountability and incentives for departments to act promptly. Though the plans outline responsibilities, there is insufficient pressure to ensure timely execution.

Conclusion

While HAPs are a critical initiative, their effectiveness is hindered by issues in vulnerability identification, accessibility, and long-term planning. A more holistic, participatory, and sustainable approach is required to ensure these plans are better equipped to combat increasing heat risks due to climate change.

Model Answer

1. Unpredictability of Rainfall
   India experiences heavy and unpredictable torrential rains, especially in the hilly regions, making landslide prevention difficult. The timing and intensity of rainfall are hard to predict, which complicates mitigation efforts. For instance, recent landslides in Kullu, Himachal Pradesh, highlighted the challenges posed by this unpredictability.
2. Fragility of Ecosystems
   The young, evolving mountains of the Himalayan region, where many landslides occur, have fragile ecosystems. These regions are prone to landslides due to sedimentary deposits rather than solid rock, making mitigation efforts challenging.
3. Proximity of Infrastructures to Landslide-Prone Areas
   Many major habitations and critical infrastructure are located near landslide-prone areas, which increases vulnerability. In Himachal Pradesh alone, there are 17,120 landslide-prone sites, with 675 near critical infrastructure.
4. Vague Recommendations in Current Management Maps
   Existing Landslide Susceptibility Management maps provide broad and generalized mitigation measures like “afforestation” without specifying which species of trees or plants to use or detailed biotechnical methods for slope stabilization.
5. Lack of Landslide Hazard Maps
   There is a lack of comprehensive, state-wise or district-wise landslide hazard zonation maps, making effective planning and strategizing for disaster management difficult.

Role of the National Landslide Risk Management Strategy

1. Landslide Hazard Zonation (LHZ) Maps
   The strategy aims to create detailed LHZ maps using advanced technology like Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs), terrestrial laser scanners, and high-resolution Earth Observation data. These maps will help in identifying and addressing high-risk zones.
2. Landslide Monitoring and Early Warning Systems
   The strategy emphasizes the development of monitoring systems, including rainfall thresholds, numerical weather prediction models, automatic rain gauges, and wireless sensor networks to provide early warnings.
3. Awareness Programs
   It includes designing awareness programs, reviewing past efforts, and identifying gaps to ensure communities and stakeholders are better prepared for landslide risks.
4. Capacity Building
   The strategy outlines the need for capacity building and training programs for stakeholders on landslide disaster risk reduction (DRR) using the latest technology.
5. Policy and Regulation Enhancements
   The strategy recommends updating building regulations, reviewing the BIS codes on landslide management, and revising town and country planning legislation to improve resilience in mountain zones.

By addressing these challenges and implementing the National Landslide Risk Management Strategy, India can improve landslide disaster preparedness and mitigation significantly.