Model Answer

Causes Behind the Rising Frequency of Urban Floods in India

India has experienced a significant rise in urban floods in recent years, with notable instances in Chennai (2004), Mumbai (2005), Delhi (2009), Guwahati and Delhi (2010), and Bangalore (2022). This increasing frequency can be attributed to several factors:

• Changing Weather Patterns: Climate change has led to more unpredictable weather, with high-intensity rainfall and cloudbursts occurring within short spans. This has caused storm surges, especially in coastal cities, overwhelming drainage systems (Source: National Disaster Management Authority).
• Concretization and Urbanization: Rapid urbanization has resulted in the concretization of large land areas, reducing natural soil infiltration and increasing runoff. As a result, water quickly overwhelms storm drains and floods urban areas (Source: NDMA Guidelines on Management of Urban Flooding).
• Stormwater and Waste Mismanagement: Inadequate drainage capacity, worsened by solid waste and construction debris clogging drains, significantly reduces their capacity to handle heavy rainfall, causing overflow and flooding (Source: Ministry of Urban Development).
• Encroachments: Unplanned urban expansion has led to encroachments on natural drainage paths, lake beds, and river floodplains, decreasing their ability to absorb rainwater and increasing flood risk (Source: NDMA).
• Inadequate Infrastructure: Aging or inadequate urban infrastructure, including limited pipeline capacity, insufficient flood storage, and poorly maintained pumping stations, exacerbates flooding (Source: Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs).

Government Measures to Mitigate Urban Flood Risks

The Indian government has implemented several initiatives to address urban flood risks:

• National Guidelines on Urban Flood Management: Following the 2005 Mumbai floods, the NDMA introduced guidelines specifically for urban flooding, treating it as a unique disaster type separate from riverine floods (Source: NDMA).
• Sponge Cities Mission and AMRUT: Programs like the Sponge Cities Mission and Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT) support flood-resilient urban planning, encouraging measures like green roofs, rainwater harvesting, and rain gardens (Source: AMRUT).
• Restoration of Lakes and Wetlands: Cities like Bangalore and Mumbai have taken initiatives to rejuvenate lakes and wetlands, which can help absorb floodwaters and enhance biodiversity (Source: Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change).
• Nature-Based Solutions: Urban areas are incorporating nature-based solutions, such as Bhopal’s green-blue master plan, Chennai’s “Water as Leverage” initiative, and Delhi’s Master Plan 2041, to manage urban water flow and improve environmental resilience (Source: City Planning Initiatives).

While India has made strides in addressing urban flood risks, ongoing efforts to improve local governance, waste management, and climate awareness are crucial as the urban population continues to grow, projected to reach 814 million by 2050.

Model Answer

Land-use change refers to human-induced modifications to the landscape, often for economic or developmental purposes. In India, rapid and often unsustainable land-use changes have heightened the frequency and intensity of natural disasters.

1. Urbanization and Concretization

Urbanization in India has led to the conversion of wetlands, forests, and hillslopes into impervious concrete surfaces. This disrupts natural drainage systems, increasing surface runoff, and exacerbating flooding. For instance, recent urban floods in cities like Mumbai, Delhi, and Kerala have been partly attributed to the encroachment of wetlands and deforestation, which had previously acted as natural flood buffers. Additionally, such land-use changes reduce groundwater recharge, making regions more vulnerable to droughts during dry spells.

2. Deforestation

The widespread deforestation to accommodate agricultural expansion and urban development contributes to the disruption of ecosystems that naturally regulate water flow. This has led to an increased risk of floods, soil erosion, and the occurrence of extreme weather events such as heatwaves and cyclones. Loss of forests also diminishes the resilience of local environments to climate change, thus intensifying the impacts of natural disasters.

3. Large-Scale Infrastructure Projects

Infrastructure projects, including large hydroelectric dams, roads, and railways, have resulted in habitat destruction and land degradation. For example, hydropower projects disrupt river ecosystems, potentially causing flash floods, Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs), and landslides. Construction in mountainous areas, particularly for tourism, has led to significant landslides and road damage, as seen in Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh.

4. Coastal and Floodplain Construction

Illegal construction along floodplains and coastal areas increases exposure to flooding, coastal erosion, and storm surges. For example, unauthorized constructions in Punjab’s Ghaggar and Sutlej floodplains have led to devastating floods. Similarly, land reclamation in coastal areas makes communities more vulnerable to sea-level rise and tsunamis.

5. Agricultural Practices

Mono-cropping practices reduce crop diversity, making agriculture more susceptible to pests and diseases. This reduces food security and exacerbates vulnerability to droughts, contributing to economic and environmental disasters.

Conclusion

Sustainable land-use planning, including zoning regulations, reforestation, and comprehensive environmental impact assessments, is essential to mitigate the impact of these land-use changes and the natural disasters they fuel.

Model Answer

Introduction

Heat Action Plans (HAPs) are designed by Indian authorities to protect vulnerable populations from the harmful effects of heat waves. Initiated in 2013 by Ahmedabad, these plans aim to provide targeted measures, including early warnings and resource mobilization, to safeguard people during extreme heat events.

Strengths of HAPs

• Wide Implementation: The Indian government has extended HAPs to 23 states and over 130 cities, incorporating localized plans for heat wave-prone regions.
• Public Awareness: Heat wave alerts are disseminated through various platforms, including mobile-based advisories and media campaigns, providing some level of public awareness.

Key Issues Impacting Effectiveness

1. Inadequate Vulnerability Identification: Many HAPs fail to identify vulnerable populations based on localized assessments. For instance, while Kerala recognized delivery agents and indoor workers as at risk, other regions did not address the needs of these groups (Centre for Policy Research).
2. Lack of Reliable Risk Assessments: Vulnerability and risk assessments are often missing or insufficient, leading to inefficient distribution of resources and delayed responses to heat waves. There is a lack of tailored interventions for workers, such as farm laborers, who are significantly affected.
3. Accessibility Challenges: While technological solutions like mobile-based heat advisories are introduced, there is little attention to accessibility issues. Mobile ownership and literacy rates, especially among women and vulnerable groups, are not adequately considered, reducing the reach of advisories.
4. Short-Term Focus: The current focus is mostly on short-term measures, such as adjusting school and work timings. Long-term solutions, such as encouraging adaptive agricultural practices or infrastructure changes, are rarely addressed.
5. Lack of Incentives: HAPs lack effective accountability and incentives for departments to act promptly. Though the plans outline responsibilities, there is insufficient pressure to ensure timely execution.

Conclusion

While HAPs are a critical initiative, their effectiveness is hindered by issues in vulnerability identification, accessibility, and long-term planning. A more holistic, participatory, and sustainable approach is required to ensure these plans are better equipped to combat increasing heat risks due to climate change.

Model Answer

1. Unpredictability of Rainfall
   India experiences heavy and unpredictable torrential rains, especially in the hilly regions, making landslide prevention difficult. The timing and intensity of rainfall are hard to predict, which complicates mitigation efforts. For instance, recent landslides in Kullu, Himachal Pradesh, highlighted the challenges posed by this unpredictability.
2. Fragility of Ecosystems
   The young, evolving mountains of the Himalayan region, where many landslides occur, have fragile ecosystems. These regions are prone to landslides due to sedimentary deposits rather than solid rock, making mitigation efforts challenging.
3. Proximity of Infrastructures to Landslide-Prone Areas
   Many major habitations and critical infrastructure are located near landslide-prone areas, which increases vulnerability. In Himachal Pradesh alone, there are 17,120 landslide-prone sites, with 675 near critical infrastructure.
4. Vague Recommendations in Current Management Maps
   Existing Landslide Susceptibility Management maps provide broad and generalized mitigation measures like “afforestation” without specifying which species of trees or plants to use or detailed biotechnical methods for slope stabilization.
5. Lack of Landslide Hazard Maps
   There is a lack of comprehensive, state-wise or district-wise landslide hazard zonation maps, making effective planning and strategizing for disaster management difficult.

Role of the National Landslide Risk Management Strategy

1. Landslide Hazard Zonation (LHZ) Maps
   The strategy aims to create detailed LHZ maps using advanced technology like Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs), terrestrial laser scanners, and high-resolution Earth Observation data. These maps will help in identifying and addressing high-risk zones.
2. Landslide Monitoring and Early Warning Systems
   The strategy emphasizes the development of monitoring systems, including rainfall thresholds, numerical weather prediction models, automatic rain gauges, and wireless sensor networks to provide early warnings.
3. Awareness Programs
   It includes designing awareness programs, reviewing past efforts, and identifying gaps to ensure communities and stakeholders are better prepared for landslide risks.
4. Capacity Building
   The strategy outlines the need for capacity building and training programs for stakeholders on landslide disaster risk reduction (DRR) using the latest technology.
5. Policy and Regulation Enhancements
   The strategy recommends updating building regulations, reviewing the BIS codes on landslide management, and revising town and country planning legislation to improve resilience in mountain zones.

By addressing these challenges and implementing the National Landslide Risk Management Strategy, India can improve landslide disaster preparedness and mitigation significantly.