Between 1858 and 1947 India’s constitutional development progressed through the Indian Councils Act (1861, 1892, 1909), the Government of India Act (1919, 1935) and the Indian Independence Act (1947) gradually increasing Indian representation and autonomy.The constitutional developments between 1858 and 1947 in India had several limitations that hindered the achievement of self governance –

1. The Indian Councils Act of 1861, 1892 and 1909 provided for limited representation of Indians in the legislative councils which were dominated by British officials.
2. The legislative councils had no real power as the British Governor General and provincial governors retained veto power over legislation.
3. The franchise was limited to a small elite group excluding the masses from the political process.
4. The British government retained control over key areas like defense, foreign policy and finance.
5. The British adopted a divide and rule policy creating separate electorates for Muslims, Sikhs and other communities which hindered the development of a unified nationalist movement.
6. The Government of India Act of 1935 provided for limited provincial autonomy but the British retained control over key areas and had the power to dissolve provincial governments.

These limitations hindered the achievement of self governance in India leading to the continuation of British rule until India finally gained independence in 1947.

The Indian National Congress (INC) is a political party founded on December 28, 1885 with deep roots in India advocating for reforms and self governance within the British Empire .The Indian National Congress played a pivotal role in influencing constitutional reforms during the moderate phase, from 1885 to 1905.

Key Contributions –

1. The Indian National Congress’ economic critique of British imperialism highlighted the exploitative drain of India’s wealth, uneven trade practices and neglect of Indian industries informing their push for constitutional reforms.
2. Constitutional reforms as advocated by the Indian National Congress involved expanding legislative councils, increasing Indian representation and separating the judiciary from the executive, ultimately aiming to democratize the governance of British India .
3. Protection of civil rights was a key role of the Indian National Congress in influencing constitutional reforms. They advocated for freedom of speech, press and expression opposing any attempts to limit these freedoms .
4. The Indian National Congress’s welfare activities during the Moderate Phase focused on promoting primary education and agricultural development. They advocated for the establishment of agricultural banks to rescue peasants from money lenders .

While the Congress faced significant challenges during this period including hostility from the British government, their efforts laid the groundwork for future constitutional reforms and the eventual struggle for independence.

Communal tensions in India have a complex history dating back to the colonial era.Communal tensions had a profound impact on the constitutional development and political landscape in India, particularly during the British colonial period and the lead up to independence. Here are some ways in which communal tensions affected India’s constitutional development and political landscape –

1. The British introduced separate electorates for Hindus and Muslims in 1909 which created separate political representation for each community. This policy reinforced communal divisions and made it difficult to achieve consensus on constitutional issues.
2. The British government’s emphasis on communal representation led to the creation of separate seats for Muslims, Sikhs and other minority communities in the legislative councils. This system perpetuated communal divisions and hindered the development of a unified Indian identity.
3. The growth of communal tensions and the perceived need for a separate homeland for Muslims led to the emergence of the Pakistan Movement in the 1940s. This movement ultimately resulted in the partition of India and the creation of Pakistan in 1947.
4. Communal tensions created a constitutional impasse making it difficult for Indian leaders to agree on a constitutional framework. The Muslim League’s insistence on separate electorates and greater autonomy for Muslim majority provinces hindered the development of a unified constitution.
5. The communal tensions and the eventual partition of India had a profound impact on the development of secularism in India. The Indian Constitution adopted in 1950 enshrined secularism as a fundamental principle but the legacy of communal tensions continues to influence Indian politics and society.
6. The partition of India in 1947 resulted in one of the largest mass migrations in history with millions of people crossing the newly created border between India and Pakistan. The legacy of partition continues to shape the political landscape of both countries with ongoing tensions and disputes over issues like Kashmir and border demarcation.

In conclusion, communal tensions had a profound impact on India’s constitutional development and political landscape. The legacy of these tensions continues to shape Indian politics and society with ongoing debates over issues like secularism, federalism and the rights of minority communities.

The Cripps Mission led by Sir Stafford Cripps was a British government delegation that visited India in March 1942 to negotiate a constitutional settlement with Indian leaders. The mission had a significant impact on the constitutional negotiations leading to independence.

Key Proposals –

1. The Cripps Mission offered India dominion status which would have made India a self governing dominion of the British Empire similar to Canada or Australia.
2. The mission proposed a constitutional framework that would have established a federal India with a weak central government and strong provincial governments.
3. The proposal granted provincial autonomy allowing provinces to manage their own affairs but with the British government retaining control over defense, foreign affairs and communications.

Impact on Constitutional Negotiations –

1. The Indian National Congress (INC) rejected the Cripps Mission’s proposals as they did not provide for immediate independence or a strong central government.
2. The mission’s proposals did not adequately address the Muslim League’s demands for a separate homeland for Muslims which further complicated the negotiations.
3. The failure of the Cripps Mission led to an escalation of demands from Indian leaders with the INC calling for immediate independence and the Muslim League demanding a separate homeland.
4. The failure of the Cripps Mission damaged the British government’s credibility in India making it increasingly difficult for them to negotiate a constitutional settlement.

The Cripps Mission’s failure marked a significant turning point in the constitutional negotiations leading to Indian independence. The mission’s proposals were rejected by Indian leaders and the failure to address key demands led to an escalation of tensions and a hardening of positions. Ultimately the British government’s loss of credibility and the increasing demands of Indian leaders made it clear that independence was inevitable.