Model Answer

Introduction

Watershed management refers to the process of managing land, water, and related resources within a specific area known as a watershed. A watershed is the region from which all water drains into a common water body, such as a river, lake, or ocean. The goal of watershed management is to optimize the use of these resources while ensuring environmental sustainability. By integrating strategies to conserve water and soil, enhance agricultural productivity, and improve local ecosystems, watershed management aims to improve both environmental and socioeconomic conditions.

Prospects of Watershed Management:

1. Soil and Water Conservation:
   • Watershed management helps prevent soil erosion and improves water retention. Techniques like afforestation, contour bunding, and terracing are used to protect the soil and increase water infiltration.
   • Example: In Jhabua (Madhya Pradesh), watershed management projects have focused on soil and water conservation, afforestation, and improving livelihoods for tribal communities.
2. Sustainable Agriculture:
   • It promotes sustainable agricultural practices like crop rotation, organic farming, and agroforestry. These practices help increase productivity and protect the land for future generations.
   • Example: Watershed management programs in various regions have led to improved crop yields and better agricultural practices, benefiting farmers’ livelihoods.
3. Biodiversity Conservation:
   • By conserving natural habitats and encouraging sustainable land use, watershed management helps protect biodiversity.
   • Example: The Ecological and Watershed Restoration Program in the Philippines has been instrumental in conserving threatened species and ecosystems.
4. Water Resource Development:
   • Watershed management includes projects like check dams, reservoirs, and rainwater harvesting systems to improve water availability for irrigation and domestic use.
   • Examples:
     • Andhra Pradesh’s Neeru-Chettu program rejuvenated degraded lands and enhanced water resources.
     • Rajasthan’s Jheel Jeevan project restored traditional water bodies (johads), helping with local water conservation.
     • In Nepal, the Watershed Development Fund increased water availability for both irrigation and domestic purposes.
5. Climate Change Resilience:
   • Proper watershed management can help ecosystems become more resilient to climate change by improving water storage and land-use practices.
   • Example: The Watershed Management Project in Ethiopia integrated climate change adaptation strategies to protect communities and ecosystems.

Limitations of Watershed Management:

1. Financial Constraints:
   • Watershed management projects require significant investment in infrastructure, training, and monitoring. Lack of funds can hinder effective implementation.
2. Institutional Challenges:
   • Watershed management involves multiple stakeholders, including government agencies, local communities, and NGOs. Coordinating these diverse groups can be difficult, causing delays and inefficiencies.
3. Technical Expertise:
   • The success of watershed management requires expertise in various fields like hydrology, agriculture, and ecology. A shortage of skilled professionals can reduce the quality and impact of interventions.
4. Climate Change:
   • Climate change may alter rainfall patterns, increase the frequency of extreme weather events, and affect water availability, making watershed management even more challenging. Managing these impacts may go beyond the scope of traditional watershed management approaches.
5. Social Equity:
   • Sometimes, watershed management projects can negatively affect marginalized communities, especially if they lose access to traditional resources or livelihoods. Ensuring fair participation and benefit-sharing is crucial for the success of these projects.

Model Answer

Ethnic and indigenous communities in India, comprising around 68 million people, play a pivotal role in the conservation of biodiversity. Living in proximity to forests, they have developed sustainable practices that help preserve the natural environment over generations.

1. Cultural and Religious Integration Many tribal communities integrate conservation into their cultural beliefs, often treating certain plants or animals as sacred. For example, the Gond tribe in the Western Ghats protects sacred groves of the mango tree (Mangifera Indica) due to their belief in the tree being the abode of deities. This cultural reverence helps maintain biodiversity by preventing the destruction of these ecosystems.

2. Use of Traditional Knowledge Indigenous communities possess traditional ecological knowledge, passed down through generations. This knowledge enables them to utilize a wide range of plant species without overexploiting them. For example, tribes in southern India use up to 1,500 plant species, compared to the 100-150 species typically relied upon by others. This diversity helps prevent overharvesting of any single species and promotes ecosystem balance.

3. Sustainable Practices in Agriculture Tribal communities in India follow sustainable agricultural practices that ensure species conservation. For instance, the Kadars in Tamil Nadu selectively harvest mature yam plants, and the Gaddi and Gujjar tribes practice controlled grazing to prevent the overgrowth of wild grasses. These methods contribute to maintaining the health of local ecosystems.

4. Species-Specific Conservation Some indigenous tribes avoid hunting certain species they consider sacred. The Adi tribe in Arunachal Pradesh, for example, does not hunt tigers, sparrows, or pangolins, believing these creatures bring good fortune. Such species-specific taboos contribute to species preservation.

5. Environmental Movements and Collective Responsibility Indigenous communities have initiated numerous environmental movements to protect ecosystems, such as the Bishnoi movement in Rajasthan and the Jungle Bachao Andolan in Bihar. Furthermore, they practice collective responsibility by ensuring that saplings are not destroyed and only necessary resources are collected from nature.

6. Collaboration with Government Many tribal communities collaborate with governmental bodies and NGOs in conservation efforts. The Singchung Bagun Village Community Reserve in Arunachal Pradesh, for instance, was created to protect a rare bird species through a joint effort between the Bagun tribe, researchers, and the forest department.

In conclusion, ethnic and indigenous communities have developed an in-depth understanding of local ecosystems, contributing significantly to the conservation of biodiversity in India. Recognizing their vital role and adopting a rights-based approach can greatly enhance India’s conservation efforts.

Model Answer

Rewilding is an innovative approach to environmental conservation aimed at restoring ecosystems that have been altered by human activities to their natural state. It involves allowing wildlife and natural processes to reclaim areas that are no longer under human management, helping to rejuvenate biodiversity and ecosystem functions.

Principles Guiding Rewilding Initiatives

1. Utilization of Wildlife
   Rewilding efforts should include the reintroduction of keystone species that play a critical role in ecological balance. These species help restore trophic interactions and contribute to ecosystem health. For instance, the reintroduction of the rare pygmy hog in Assam’s Manas National Park and Tiger Reserve is an example of this principle in action.
2. Identification of Core Areas
   Rewilding requires securing core areas that support diverse species, restoring connectivity between these regions, and ensuring that humans and wildlife can coexist peacefully. Critical Wildlife Habitats, such as those established in national parks and wildlife sanctuaries, help protect these essential areas.
3. Community Engagement
   Local community support is vital for the success of rewilding projects. In the Western Himalayan region, local communities actively protect snow leopard habitats, showing the importance of involving indigenous knowledge and fostering stewardship.
4. Focus on Ecological Recovery
   Rewilding initiatives should prioritize the recovery of ecological processes and interactions that once existed in healthy ecosystems. These efforts must be based on scientific evidence and local knowledge to guide restoration.
5. Climate Change Mitigation
   Rewilding projects should address the impacts of climate change by incorporating adaptive strategies. For example, the ecological restoration in the Aravali Biodiversity Park uses climate-resilient tree species like babool and ghatbor.
6. Scientific and Local Knowledge
   A successful rewilding approach must integrate both scientific research and local, traditional knowledge. Sacred groves in the Western Ghats, managed with a blend of religious and ecological understanding, exemplify this approach.
7. Adaptive Management
   Continuous monitoring and adaptive management strategies are essential for ensuring rewilding projects remain effective and can evolve based on changing ecological and climatic conditions.

These principles form the foundation for rewilding efforts that aim to restore biodiversity, mitigate climate change, and achieve long-term ecological sustainability.

Model Answer

Why Has the Quality of River Water in India Shown Little Improvement?

Despite extensive efforts by various stakeholders, the quality of river water in India has shown little improvement. Several factors contribute to this ongoing challenge:

1. Ineffective Sewage Treatment Infrastructure

One of the major obstacles to improving river water quality is the lack of adequate sewage treatment facilities. For example, while the five states through which the Ganga flows generate around 10,000 million liters of sewage daily, their combined treatment capacity is only about 4,000 million liters, or just 40% of the required capacity. This imbalance leads to untreated sewage being discharged into rivers, contributing to pollution.

2. Inadequate Monitoring and Data Collection

Effective monitoring of water quality remains a challenge in India. Although the National Mission for Clean Ganga intends to monitor water quality at 134 stations, it is currently only being conducted at 97 stations. This insufficient data collection hampers efforts to understand the extent of pollution and take appropriate corrective measures.

3. Uncontrolled Waste Discharge

Untreated waste continues to flow into rivers, further exacerbating pollution. According to the National Green Tribunal (NGT), untreated sewage is discharged into 60% of the Ganga, making it one of the most polluted rivers in the country. Similarly, untreated waste from textile and chemical manufacturing units contributes to the pollution of rivers like the Sabarmati.

4. Impact of Unplanned Tourism and Agricultural Run-off

Unregulated tourism activities have also emerged as a threat to water bodies, particularly through increased plastic waste, as seen near the Indus River in Ladakh. Additionally, agricultural run-off, especially from excessive use of fertilizers and pesticides, contaminates river water and groundwater. The CPCB has reported the presence of harmful metals like manganese and copper in rivers such as the Yamuna, further degrading water quality.

Conclusion

Despite measures like the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974, and programs like the Namami Gange and National River Conservation Plan, significant improvements in river water quality are hindered by factors such as inadequate infrastructure, lax monitoring, and unregulated waste discharge. Addressing these challenges requires concerted efforts from both the central and state governments, including better waste management infrastructure, stricter law enforcement, and active public participation.

Model Answer

Significance of Mangroves for Coastal Communities and Biodiversity

Mangroves are vital ecosystems that provide numerous benefits to coastal communities and biodiversity. They serve as a natural barrier against storms and coastal erosion, protecting human settlements and infrastructure from the impacts of severe weather events. This protective function is crucial for reducing the risks associated with coastal hazards, thereby safeguarding lives and properties.

In terms of biodiversity, mangroves are among the most productive ecosystems on the planet. They support nearly 3,000 species of fish and a diverse array of flora and fauna, many of which are endemic to these habitats. Mangroves also provide essential breeding and nursery grounds for various marine species, contributing significantly to the health of coastal fisheries. Furthermore, they are home to a wide range of mammals, reptiles, and invertebrates, enhancing overall biodiversity in coastal regions.

Mangroves also play a critical role in the livelihoods of approximately 120 million people living in coastal areas. The resources they provide, such as wood, fish, and other minor produce, are integral to the diets and lifestyles of these communities. Additionally, mangrove ecosystems support eco-tourism, generating income and employment opportunities for local populations.

The MISHTI Scheme

In recognition of the importance of mangroves, the Union Budget 2023-24 introduced the Mangrove Initiative for Shoreline Habitats & Tangible Incomes (MISHTI). This scheme aims to enhance the regeneration and sustainable utilization of mangrove ecosystems across India. Key features of the MISHTI scheme include:

• Expansion of Mangrove Area: The initiative plans to increase mangrove plantations along coastlines and salt pan lands, targeting an area of 540 square kilometers across 11 states and 2 Union Territories over the next five years.
• Convergence of Schemes: The scheme will leverage existing programs, such as the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS) and the Compensatory Afforestation Fund, to fund mangrove restoration efforts.
• Collaboration and Best Practices: MISHTI emphasizes the incorporation of best practices in plantation techniques and management, promoting public-private partnerships for resource mobilization.
• Environmental Focus: This initiative is part of a broader effort to enhance environmental conservation and combat climate change, as mangroves are known for their high carbon sequestration potential.

The MISHTI scheme is a timely intervention, addressing the threats faced by mangrove ecosystems due to commercialization and development pressures.