Semiconductors refer to the materials which have electrical conductivity quality extract greater than that of conductors and lesser than that of insulators. There are two primary types of semiconductors—n-type and p-type—and both of them are essential to the modern electronics industry. Depending on the type of charge carriers conduction in semiconductors can be classified into N-Type Semiconductors: It is formed when a minute amount of pentavalent element (like phosphorus, arsenic or antimony) is doped into an intrinsic semiconductor (like silicon or germanium). These elements have five valence electrons, in contrast to silicon or germanium, which have just four. This additional electron is loosely bound and can easily occupy a position, thus endowing the material with conductivity. Therefore, n-type semiconductors have an excess of electrons and thus negative carriers.

P-Type Semiconductors P-Type semiconductors are created when dopamine combines with elements with a valency of 3, such as boron, aluminum and gallium These have three valence electrons, one less than silicon or germanium. This creates “holes” in the crystal structure that can take in electrons. Because they contain positive charge, they are termed p-type.

The preparation involves introducing impurities into the pure material of the semiconductor called doping. Diffusion, ion implantation and epitaxial growth are commonly used techniques for this purpose. Both techniques have their own advantages, and are used based on the specific requirements of the semiconductor device being fabricated.

There are many uses for n-type and p-type semiconductors. They enable the construction of diodes, transistors, and integrated circuits, the building blocks of modern electronics. For instance, diodes use n-type and p-type material combination, which allows current to flow in one direction only. There are two basic types of semiconductors. N-type semiconductors are silicon atoms doped with elements such as phosphorus that have 5 outer shell electrons; they gain extra electrons and become negatively charged because of the donation of 1 extra electron per atom of the dopant material. P-type semiconductors are silicon atoms doped with elements such as boron that have 3 outer shell electrons; the host atoms now have 1 fewer electron per dopant atom and have “holes” where electrons could be which means they have a positive charge. These semiconductors enable integrated circuits — crucial to everything from smartphones to computers — to carry out complicated tasks while using little power.

So to sum up, n-type and p-type semiconductors are so fundamental in the electronics industry because they are the building blocks that can be combined to create intricate devices that form our digital universe.

India in Space Science and Technology: A Second Spring

India has earned a place as a world leader in space science and technology, with achievements that range from stimulating their own space program to contributing to the world’s scientific endeavors. Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO), established in 1969, has spearheaded much of these developments and conducted path-breaking work in the space technology domain.

The most significant achievement is India’s own Chandrayaan-1 mission deploys in 2008, it become the 4th country in the world to placed our flag on the Moon. An important find from this mission is the detection of water molecules on the surface of the Moon, with beautiful implications for future lunar missions and the ongoing human presence on the Moon.

India successfully placed the first Mars Orbiter Mission (Mangalyaan) in 2014 and became the first country in the world to get into the orbit of the red planet on its first attempt. Cost and decisiveness of the mission have set a new standard for what plays can be run in space, demonstrating what can be achieved through a combination of ingenuity and state of the art technologies.

From communication, navigation, and earth observation satellites to deep space missions, India has made tremendous strides in satellite technology through the launch of the same. IRNSS (Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System)

India has also gained a reputation as a satellite launching nation owing mainly to its PSLV and GSLV which provides launch service from countries around the world contributing to its economy and international collaboration in the experiments to develop further space technology and also many others.