Cārvāka Viewpoint on Ātman

The Cārvāka school of thought, also known as Lokāyata, is an ancient Indian materialistic philosophy that rejects the metaphysical concepts prominent in other Indian philosophical traditions, such as ātman (soul or self), karma, and moksha. The Cārvāka philosophy is considered heterodox as it challenges the orthodox Hindu doctrines, especially those found in Vedanta and Sankhya systems.

1. Rejection of Ātman (Soul)

The Cārvāka viewpoint on ātman is fundamentally materialistic and atheistic. According to Cārvāka, there is no separate or eternal soul distinct from the body. They argue that consciousness is a product of the body and the mind, particularly as a result of the combination of the four elements: earth, water, fire, and air. When these elements combine in a particular way, consciousness arises. Thus, they do not believe in an immortal or eternal soul that survives after death.

• Recent Example: In the context of modern science, Cārvāka’s view can be compared to the neuroscientific perspective, where consciousness is seen as an emergent property of the brain’s physical processes, and not something that exists independently of the body. This is akin to how Cārvāka regarded consciousness as an epiphenomenon of the physical body, without any spiritual or eternal existence.

2. Denial of Life After Death

Cārvāka also rejects the idea of rebirth or transmigration of the soul. They hold the view that life is limited to the physical existence of the body, and once the body dies, consciousness ceases to exist. In other words, death is the end of everything—there is no afterlife, no heaven or hell, and no soul that continues to exist after the body perishes.

• Recent Example: This viewpoint aligns with secular humanism in modern society, which emphasizes that human life and consciousness are confined to the physical world, with no belief in an afterlife or soul. Many atheist and agnostic groups today adopt similar positions, focusing on rationality and the material world rather than metaphysical concepts.

3. Criticism of Religious Rituals and Moksha

Cārvāka strongly criticized the religious rituals and practices that were aimed at achieving moksha (liberation) or securing a better afterlife. According to them, the concept of moksha is a myth, and such rituals are meaningless since there is no afterlife or soul to liberate. Instead, they advocated for hedonism, believing that the purpose of life is to enjoy the pleasures of the material world.

• Recent Example: The Cārvāka philosophy can be compared to modern consumerism, where the emphasis is on the pursuit of material pleasures and the satisfaction of desires. In a world driven by economic growth and material success, some critics argue that societies have adopted a Cārvāka-like worldview, prioritizing immediate pleasure over spiritual or metaphysical goals.

Conclusion

The Cārvāka view of ātman is starkly different from the spiritual perspectives of other Indian philosophies. They deny the existence of an eternal soul, rebirth, and the concept of an afterlife, focusing solely on the materialistic and physical aspects of life. In many ways, Cārvāka’s materialistic and atheistic philosophy parallels modern secular, scientific, and hedonistic viewpoints, offering a critique of religious and spiritual doctrines that have persisted over millennia.

Five Great Vows According to Mahavira

Mahavira, the 24th Tirthankara of Jainism, emphasized a life of discipline and self-control to achieve liberation (moksha). His teachings included the Panch Mahavrata (Five Great Vows), which form the foundation of Jain ethics and spiritual practice. These vows are essential for monks and nuns, but they also serve as guiding principles for laypersons in a more limited form.

1. Ahimsa (Non-Violence)

Ahimsa is the foremost vow, where one commits to non-violence in thought, word, and deed. Mahavira emphasized that every living being, whether human, animal, or plant, has a soul, and thus, harming any form of life is a sin. This vow extends not only to physical actions but also to speech and thoughts.

• Recent Example: The contemporary practice of veganism and the animal rights movement can be linked to the principle of Ahimsa. Jain communities and various non-violent movements promote cruelty-free living, inspired by Mahavira’s teachings.

2. Satya (Truthfulness)

The vow of Satya commits individuals to always speak the truth. According to Mahavira, truthfulness is essential for spiritual purity, and lying or deceit causes harm to both oneself and others.

• Recent Example: In today’s world, the value of truthfulness is particularly relevant in the fight against misinformation and fake news. Mahavira’s principle of Satya can be seen in efforts to promote media literacy and the integrity of information in public discourse.

3. Asteya (Non-Stealing)

Asteya refers to the vow of non-stealing, which means one should not take anything that is not willingly given. This includes both material possessions and intellectual property.

• Recent Example: With the rise of the digital age, the concept of intellectual property rights and the fight against piracy are modern reflections of the Asteya vow. The ethical emphasis on respecting others’ work, whether in the form of ideas or goods, aligns with this ancient vow.

4. Brahmacharya (Celibacy)

For monks and nuns, Brahmacharya means complete celibacy. For laypersons, it signifies fidelity in marriage and controlling one’s desires. This vow aims at reducing attachment and passion, which are seen as obstacles to spiritual growth.

• Recent Example: In modern discussions around mental well-being and self-discipline, the practice of mindfulness and minimalism reflects the vow of Brahmacharya, focusing on controlling desires and leading a balanced life.

5. Aparigraha (Non-Possessiveness)

The vow of Aparigraha involves non-attachment to material possessions and limiting one’s needs. Mahavira taught that greed and accumulation lead to bondage, while reducing attachment to possessions aids in spiritual liberation.

• Recent Example: The global movement towards sustainability, minimalism, and environmental conservation echoes the vow of Aparigraha. The increasing awareness of the negative impact of consumerism and the need for responsible use of resources aligns with this Jain vow.

Conclusion

The Five Great Vows of Mahavira—Ahimsa, Satya, Asteya, Brahmacharya, and Aparigraha—serve as ethical and spiritual guidelines not only for ascetics but also for laypersons. These principles continue to influence modern values, particularly in areas like non-violence, truthfulness, sustainability, and ethical living. By adhering to these vows, one moves closer to moksha and lives a life in harmony with the universe.

Aristotle’s Four Causes

Aristotle’s theory of causality, often referred to as the Doctrine of the Four Causes, offers a framework to understand why things exist or change. His theory suggests that for everything that exists or happens, there are four causes or explanations that provide a comprehensive understanding. These causes are: Material Cause, Formal Cause, Efficient Cause, and Final Cause. Each one answers a different aspect of why something is the way it is.

1. Material Cause

The material cause refers to the substance or matter out of which something is made. It answers the question, “What is it made of?”

• Example: In the case of a wooden table, the material cause is the wood from which the table is crafted.
• Recent Example: Consider the construction of electric vehicles (EVs) as a modern illustration. The material cause of an EV includes the lithium-ion batteries, metals, and other materials required for its structure and functionality.

2. Formal Cause

The formal cause is the blueprint, plan, or structure of a thing. It answers the question, “What form or design does it take?” The formal cause refers to the essence or the definition of something.

• Example: The formal cause of a house would be the architectural design or blueprint that determines its shape and structure.
• Recent Example: In technology, the algorithm used in AI systems like ChatGPT can be seen as the formal cause. The algorithm defines the structure of how the AI operates.

3. Efficient Cause

The efficient cause is the agent or process that brings something into existence. It answers the question, “Who or what made it?”

• Example: In the case of a statue, the sculptor is the efficient cause because they shape the material into the final form.
• Recent Example: In the context of India’s space exploration, the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) is the efficient cause behind the successful Chandrayaan-3 mission in 2023. ISRO’s efforts brought the mission to life.

4. Final Cause

The final cause is the purpose or reason why something exists. It answers the question, “What is its purpose or function?” Aristotle considered this the most important cause because it explains the end goal.

• Example: The final cause of a chair is to provide a seat for someone to sit on.
• Recent Example: The National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 in India is an example of a final cause in governance. Its purpose is to transform the educational landscape of the country by promoting holistic, flexible education, thus fulfilling the nation’s need for improved learning outcomes and skill development.

Conclusion

Aristotle’s Four Causes provide a comprehensive understanding of why things exist or happen the way they do. In modern contexts, this framework can be applied to various fields—be it technology, governance, or science. Understanding these causes helps unravel the complexities of phenomena, much like how Aristotle intended to offer a structured view of the world.