Growth of Nationalism in India (1858-1905)

Model Answer

The Revolt of 1857 led to significant changes in the British administration and army in India, reflecting the British government’s response to the rebellion and its efforts to maintain control.

Changes in the Administration

1. Transfer of Power:
   The Government of India Act, 1858, marked the transfer of power from the East India Company to the British Crown. Queen Victoria was declared the sovereign of British India, and the administration was now to be overseen by a Secretary of State for India, supported by a Council. The Governor-General of India, now titled Viceroy, continued to administer the country (source: Government of India Act, 1858).
2. Provincial Administration:
   The Indian Councils Act of 1861 brought decentralisation to the provincial level. It established Legislative Councils in major provinces like Bombay, Madras, and Bengal, which helped distribute authority across local governments (source: Indian Councils Act, 1861).
3. Local Bodies and Public Services:
   Following the financial strains of the revolt, the British promoted local governance through Municipalities and District Boards. Additionally, the Indian Civil Service, previously an exclusive British institution, was opened to Indians, allowing them to take competitive exams for administrative posts (source: administrative reforms after 1857).

Changes in the Army

1. Increased Role of Europeans:
   To prevent future uprisings, the British restructured the army, increasing the proportion of European soldiers. European troops were placed in key military positions, especially in artillery, tanks, and armoured corps, which were kept under European control (source: army reorganisation after 1857).
2. Divide and Rule:
   The British adopted a “divide and rule” strategy in recruiting Indian soldiers, focusing on caste, religion, and regional differences to prevent unity among the Indian troops. They introduced caste-based regiments and communal companies, ensuring the army remained divided and loyal to British interests (source: army recruitment policies post-1857).

These reforms made the British rule more autocratic, suppressing Indian aspirations for power-sharing. Ultimately, this approach contributed to the rise of modern nationalism among the educated Indian middle class.

Model Answer

Lord Ripon as a Progressive Viceroy of India

Lord Ripon, who served as the Viceroy of India from 1880 to 1884, is widely regarded as one of the most progressive British rulers in India due to his reforms that spanned social, economic, and political spheres. His tenure was marked by a response to the challenges faced by India, such as widespread famine, regressive taxation, and growing anti-imperialist sentiment. His actions aimed to improve the lives of Indians and address the grievances of the time.

Key Reforms Initiated by Lord Ripon

1. First Factories Act (1881): Lord Ripon passed the First Factories Act, a significant step toward improving labor conditions in India. The Act prohibited the employment of children under seven years and limited the working hours for children under 12 years. It also mandated breaks and monthly holidays for factory workers, improving their quality of life.
2. Repeal of the Vernacular Press Act (1882): The Vernacular Press Act of 1878 had severely restricted the freedom of the press, especially in vernacular languages, to prevent criticism of British policies. Ripon repealed this act, ensuring that the Indian press could function freely, fostering greater political awareness among the Indian population.
3. Economic Decentralization: Ripon promoted financial decentralization, creating a more balanced distribution of revenue sources between the imperial and provincial governments. This allowed provinces greater control over their finances, laying the foundation for future fiscal autonomy.
4. Introduction of Local Self-Government (1882): The Resolution of 1882 initiated by Lord Ripon aimed at establishing elected local councils across India, empowering local communities to manage their affairs. This reform helped build the groundwork for self-governance in India.
5. The Ilbert Bill (1883): The Ilbert Bill sought to remove racial discrimination from the Indian Penal Code, allowing Indian judges to try British criminals in criminal cases. Though it faced strong opposition, Ripon’s support of the bill marked a stand against racial prejudices in the colonial judicial system.
6. Educational and Land Reforms: Lord Ripon focused on improving education in India, emphasizing the need for expanded primary education. Additionally, he addressed the grievances of peasants through the Rent Commission and worked towards passing the Bengal Tenancy Act.

Due to these efforts, Lord Ripon is remembered as a compassionate and progressive Viceroy who worked towards the welfare of Indians and the reform of India’s administrative system. His policies laid the groundwork for future self-governance and a more inclusive approach to governance.

Model Answer

Introduction

Lord Curzon served as Viceroy of India from 1899 to 1905, and his tenure was marked by significant and controversial policies that had enduring effects on the Indian national movement. These policies inadvertently strengthened nationalist sentiments, catalyzing the push for independence.

Key Policies and Their Implications

1. Partition of Bengal (1905)

The partition of Bengal along communal lines was perceived as a “divide and rule” strategy aimed at weakening nationalism.

• Fact: This move incited widespread opposition, leading to the Swadeshi movement, which promoted the boycott of British goods and spurred revolutionary activities under leaders like Aurobindo Ghosh.
• Implication: Although annulled in 1911, the partition became a rallying point for the national movement.

2. Universities Act (1904)

This act placed major universities under increased government control, ostensibly to improve standards.

• Fact: Nationalists viewed it as an attempt to suppress anti-colonial sentiments among students, resulting in protests that alienated educated classes from the British.
• Implication: It contributed to a growing political consciousness among students.

3. Official Secrets Act (1904)

The Act imposed severe restrictions on press freedom, targeting writings deemed seditious.

• Fact: This angered journalists and political activists, further stifling dissent.
• Implication: It galvanized opposition against colonial censorship and repression.

4. Ancient Monuments Protection Act (1904)

This act gave the government authority over India’s cultural heritage, seen as an appropriation of Indian identity.

• Fact: It sparked resentment among nationalists who viewed it as cultural control.
• Implication: This fostered a renewed interest in India’s heritage and history as symbols of national pride.

5. Infrastructure and Modernization

Curzon initiated various infrastructure projects, including the formation of a railway commission.

• Fact: While intended to serve British interests, these projects inadvertently connected Indian society more closely.
• Implication: Enhanced communication facilitated political mobilization and awareness.

6. Calcutta Corporation Act (1899)

This act reduced elected representatives in the Calcutta Corporation, limiting Indian self-governance.

• Fact: The reduction led to the resignation of 28 members in protest.
• Implication: It highlighted discontent with British governance and bolstered demands for greater representation.

7. Attitude Towards Princely States

Curzon aimed to maintain the autonomy of princely states, which hindered political unification efforts.

• Fact: This approach slowed cohesive nationalist movements among various regions.
• Implication: It ultimately fostered resistance against colonial rule.

Conclusion

Lord Curzon’s policies, intended to curb nationalism, ironically became catalysts for its growth. His tenure marked a significant shift from moderate to assertive nationalism, uniting diverse groups against colonial rule and setting the stage for the Indian freedom struggle.