The peace treaties that emerged from World War I, particularly the Treaty of Versailles with Germany and others like the Treaty of Saint-Germain with Austria and the Treaty of Trianon with Hungary, were indeed a mixed bag in terms of their success and impact. Here’s how they affected the division of Europe into states that sought revision of the settlement versus those that sought to preserve it:

1.Treaties and National Aspirations:

The treaties aimed to redraw the map of Europe based on national self-determination, a principle championed by U.S. President Woodrow Wilson. This meant creating new nation-states or granting independence to various ethnic groups that were previously part of multi-national empires like the Austro-Hungarian Empire and the Ottoman Empire.

2.Creation of New States:

The treaties led to the creation of new states such as Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia, which were formed by combining different ethnic groups under one political umbrella. Poland regained independence after being partitioned for over a century. These new states generally accepted the territorial and political boundaries imposed by the treaties.

3.Desire for Revision:

On the other hand, the treaties imposed harsh penalties on defeated powers like Germany and Hungary, including loss of territories, reparations payments, and military restrictions. These provisions were seen as punitive by the affected states and stirred resentment. Germany, in particular, felt humiliated by the Treaty of Versailles, which led to political instability and provided fertile ground for revisionist sentiments.

4.Dividing Europe:

The treaties divided Europe into states that were content with the settlement and those that were discontent and sought revision. States like France and Belgium, which had suffered greatly during the war and had territorial claims satisfied by the treaties, were generally supportive of maintaining the status quo. They viewed the treaties as necessary for security and stability.

5.Revisionist States:

On the other hand, Germany, Hungary, and later Italy felt aggrieved by the terms of the treaties. They sought to revise the treaties to regain lost territories, overturn punitive measures, and restore their international standing. This led to revisionist policies and nationalist movements within these countries, often challenging the post-war order and seeking to undo what they saw as unjust impositions.

6.Impact on International Relations:

The discontent and desire for revision contributed to tensions in Europe during the interwar period. It undermined the stability established by the treaties and contributed to the rise of aggressive nationalism and expansionist policies, particularly evident in Germany under Adolf Hitler and Italy under Benito Mussolini.

In conclusion, while the peace treaties after World War I aimed to establish a new, more stable order in Europe based on national self-determination, they simultaneously created a divide between states willing to preserve the settlement and those seeking to revise it. This division fueled political tensions and played a significant role in shaping the geopolitical landscape of Europe leading up to World War II.

The promulgation of Emergency in India in 1975 was a pivotal event in the country’s history, marked by significant political, social, and constitutional implications. Here are the circumstances that led to its proclamation and its implications:

Circumstances Leading to the Emergency:

1. Political Instability and Internal Crisis: In the early 1970s, India was facing a period of political instability. The ruling Congress party, led by Prime Minister Indira Gandhi, was increasingly challenged by opposition parties and faced internal dissensions.
2. Allahabad High Court Judgment: In June 1975, the Allahabad High Court found Indira Gandhi guilty of electoral malpractices in her 1971 election campaign. The court declared her election to the Lok Sabha (lower house of Parliament) void and barred her from holding any elected office for six years.
3. Prime Minister’s Response: Rather than resigning, Indira Gandhi decided to appeal the High Court verdict to the Supreme Court and sought to remain in power. She also moved swiftly to neutralize political opponents within her party and government.
4. Political Opposition and Unrest: Opposition parties, particularly the Socialist and Janata alliances, began organizing protests and demanding her resignation. The political climate became increasingly tense, with widespread demonstrations and strikes across the country.
5. National Security Concerns: Citing threats to national security and the need for strong governance to address internal unrest and economic challenges, Indira Gandhi’s government recommended to the President of India, Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed, to declare a state of Emergency under Article 352 of the Constitution.

Implications of the Emergency:

1. Suspension of Civil Liberties: The Emergency saw a widespread crackdown on civil liberties and political dissent. Fundamental rights such as freedom of speech, assembly, and movement were severely curtailed. Opposition leaders, activists, and journalists were arrested under preventive detention laws.
2. Centralization of Power: The Executive authority of the Union government was significantly strengthened during the Emergency. Indira Gandhi’s government bypassed the legislative process, and decisions were concentrated in the hands of a few at the center, undermining democratic institutions and federal principles.
3. Media Censorship: Press censorship was imposed, and media outlets were strictly controlled to prevent criticism of the government. Journalists faced restrictions on reporting and were forced to adhere to government narratives.
4. Economic Policies and Reforms: The government implemented several economic policies during the Emergency, including land reforms and family planning initiatives. Some of these policies were controversial and faced opposition from affected groups.
5. Political Fallout and Opposition Unity: The Emergency galvanized opposition forces against the Congress party and Indira Gandhi’s leadership. Leaders from various political ideologies came together to form alliances, which eventually played a crucial role in the defeat of the Congress in the 1977 elections.
6. Judicial Response: The judiciary, despite initial setbacks, eventually asserted its independence during the Emergency. Several landmark judgments, such as the Kesavananda Bharati case, reaffirmed the supremacy of the Constitution and fundamental rights over arbitrary executive actions.
7. Legacy and Lessons: The Emergency period left a lasting impact on India’s political landscape. It underscored the importance of safeguarding democratic freedoms, the role of an independent judiciary, and the need for checks and balances in a democratic system. It also served as a cautionary tale against authoritarian tendencies and the dangers of unchecked executive power.

In summary, while the Emergency was justified by the government as a response to internal instability and security threats, its implementation led to widespread suppression of democratic rights and a significant backlash. It remains a critical chapter in India’s democratic history, highlighting both vulnerabilities and resilience in the face of authoritarian challenges.

Zero budget natural farming is a type of farming that promotes chemical-free agricultural practices. It was originally introduced by agriculturist Subhash Palekar in the mid-1990s as an alternative to the Green Revolution methods. In the recent years, ZBNF was introduced by the Andhra Pradesh government in 2016, as an alternative to chemical-based and capital-intensive agriculture through its implementing agency Rythu Sadhikara Samstha (RySS). The term ‘zero budget’ means zero cost of production of all crops. It is based on four pillars, i.e.

• Jeevamrit (nectar of life): A fermented microbial culture derived primarily from cow dung and urine, jaggery, pulse flour and uncontaminated soil. Beejamrit (treatment of the seeds): Microbial coating of seed, seedlings by using cow dung. urine and lime.
• Acchadana (mulching): It is the process of covering the top soil with cover crops and crop residues.
• Waaphasa: It means soil aeration.

The traditional conventional farming, which is widely practiced in India, is dependent on extensive use of HYV seeds, fertiliser, pesticides, use of modern heavy equipment (like tractors, harvesters) etc. Significance of Zero Budget Natural Farming (ZBNF) over traditional conventional farming includes:

• Use of chemical-free inputs: While traditional farming practices are driven by using chemicals, zero budget natural farming promotes low-cost inputs such as the use of cow dung, aged cow urine, jaggery, pulse flour and other plant-based extracts.
• Relief from debt cycle: Traditional farming requires various inputs which are costly and farmers are forced to take loans. According to the FAO, ZBNF promises to end reliance on loans, which in turn, could help in ending the debt cycle for farmers.
• Eco-friendly: ZBNF processes require 50%-60% less water and less electricity (than non- ZBNF) for all the selected crops as compared to traditional farming.
• Improving soil health: The ZBNF method promotes soil aeration, minimal watering, inter- cropping, bunds and topsoil mulching. It also discourages intensive irrigation and deep ploughing, which is required in the conventional farming.

Challenges associated with ZBNF as compared to traditional farming:

• Threat to food security: Recently, the ICAR highlighted that ZBNF would result in tremendous reduction in production of agricultural crops as compared to traditional agriculture being practiced, thus compromising India’s food security.
  • For instance, against claims that organic methods can produce comparable yields to conventional farming, domestic rice production fell 20 percent in Sri Lanka. The country which was self-sufficient in rice production was forced to import rice.
• Not ‘zero budget’ in absolute terms: ZBNF is hardly ‘zero budget’, as it includes wages of hired labour, imputed value of family labour, imputed rent over owned land, costs of maintaining cows and paid-out costs on electricity and pump sets, etc. Thus, when compared to traditional farming yields, the benefit in terms of cost is not appreciable.
• Other issues in ZBNF: In Andhra Pradesh, it has been found that in farmlands on which chemical farming has been practised intensively, the soil quality is poor and does not respond quickly to ZBNF.
  • Also, in crops such as paddy, standing water in the field inhibits soil microbial population, which in turn impacts the yield after farmers switch to ZBNF.

It is necessary that before pushing the states to adopt ZBNF, the Centre should collect scientific data on how ZBNF technique affects yields after discounting the impact of drought years, soil quality and other external factors. The food security of the country, besides the livelihood of millions of farmers, needs to be borne in mind before plunging into natural farming.

Soil pollution is defined as the addition of substances to the soil, which adversely affects physical, chemical and biological properties of soil. Common contaminants include pesticides, petroleum products, radon, asbestos, lead, chromated copper arsenate and creosote. According to the report released by the UN Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO), soil pollution is a global threat that is particularly serious in regions like Europe, Eurasia, Asia and North Africa. Further, the report highlighted that the soil pollution presents a serious threat to agricultural productivity, food safety, and human health.

• Impact on Food security:
  • The toxic chemicals present in the soil can decrease soil fertility which decreases agricultural productivity and therefore food security. Around 3.7 million hectares of land in India is suffering from severe depletion of soil organic matter and nutrients.
  • Leaching of nutrients due to increased use of fertilizer, pesticide and microbial activity leads to acidification of soil, which is detrimental for agricultural productivity. Soil pollution thus also significantly impacts the food security, by reducing the crop yields.
  • Further, the contact with contaminated soils has been identified as a potential source of food contamination due to bioaccumulation of heavy metal, radioactive nuclei, persistent organic pollutants etc. This makes it unhealthy for consumption.
• Impact on Human Health:
  • Soil pollutants enter our body through the food chain, causing illnesses to appear. It can cause short term effects such as, Headaches, nausea, vomiting, coughing, pain in the chest, and wheezing, irritation of the skin and the eyes, weakness etc.
  • Long term exposures may lead to permanent damage to the nervous system, depression of the Central Nervous System, damage to vital organs such as the kidney and the liver, higher risk of developing cancer etc. Further, the spread of antibiotics in the environment increases the pathogens’ resistance to the drugs.
• Impact on the Environment:
  • The ecological balance of any system gets affected due to the widespread contamination of the soil. Most plants are unable to adapt when the chemistry of the soil changes so radically in a short period of time.
  • Fungi and bacteria found in the soil that bind it together begin to decline, which creates an additional problem of soil erosion.
  • Volatile contaminants in the soil can be carried away into the atmosphere by winds or can seep into underground water reserves, soil pollution can be a direct contributor to air and water pollution.

Hence, it can be said that healthy soils are a key to food security and a sustainable future. Therefore, a number of ways have been suggested to check the soil pollution like regulating the disposal of hazardous waste from the industries, promoting organic methods of farming, sustainable soil management practices like quantify nutrient source, soil test to provide requisite amount of fertilizer, developing new methods for measuring, remediation monitoring and better understanding the soil cycle, promoting in-situ soil-remediation through bioremediation, phyto- remediation, etc.

India, having a coastline of more than 7500 kilometres, is serviced by 13 major ports and more than 200 notified minor and intermediate ports. The Economic Survey 2021-22 has called for improved port governance and augmentation as one of the key drivers of the infrastructure sector and a necessary vehicle for social and economic transformation.

However, many issues and impediments have hindered the development of the port infrastructure in India, which include:

• Financial constraints: Underinvestment and poor financing have led to inadequate port infrastructure. This has also been one of the reasons for the dismal condition of ports, especially the non-major ports.
• Limited private sector involvement: The financial viability of port projects is a major deterrent for private developers as well as financiers. Greenfield port projects are usually in remote locations and considerable government level support is required to create basic infrastructure for site access.
• Regulatory issues: Major and non-major ports fall under different jurisdictions and the regulatory framework is also rigid. Further, there have been constraints in port infrastructure development due to land acquisition issues and delayed environmental clearances.
• Infrastructure bottlenecks: The high turnover time and pre berthing time, and freight costs make Indian ports less competitive. For example, in Singapore, the average ship turnaround time was less than a day and in India, it was just over two days.
• Old docks and terminals: There have been issues related to poor maintenance of old ports and lack of efforts for their upgradation.

With the acknowledgement of the crucial role of the port infrastructure modernisation and augmentation, following measures have been undertaken by the government:

• The Sagarmala project, which aims to modernize India’s ports so that port-led development can be augmented and coastlines can be developed to contribute to India’s growth.
• In 2016, India passed the Central Port Authority (CPA) Act, which grants more autonomy to the major ports.
• The Revised Model Concession Agreement (MCA) provides incentives for the private sector to get involved in port development. The government provides a 10-year-tax holiday to companies that help maintain and operate ports.
• The Major Port Authorities Act, 2021, provides for regulation, operation and planning of major ports in India by vesting their administrative control on the boards of major ports authorities.
• A new captive policy for port-dependent industries has been prepared to address the challenges of renewal of concession period, the scope of expansion and creating a dynamic business environment.
• Initiatives to enhance Ease of Doing Business include implementing Enterprise Business System (EBS) to simplify and digitize processes across Major Ports by 2021 and developing National Logistics Portal (Marine).

The country’s marine sector is intricately linked to economic trade and competitiveness. The Maritime Indian Vision 2030 is a step in the right direction to enhance the port infrastructure and give the necessary impetus for rapid and efficient expansion of India’s port sector.