Buddhism is a non-theistic religion (no belief in a creator god), also considered as a philosophy and a moral discipline, which originated in India in the 6th and 5th centuries BCE. It was founded by the sage Siddhartha Gautama (the Buddha). Renowned for their wisdom, intelligence, and patience, the elephant is considered as a vital part of the Buddhist faith, as given below:

• Buddha as an elephant in earlier lives: It is believed that before being reincarnated in human form, Buddha lived as an elephant, and thus elephants are considered as sacred in Buddhism.
• Buddha as white elephant: After a white elephant appeared in the dream of Queen Maya, she believed that her pregnancy and birth to Siddhartha were because of the same white elephant.
• The Lotus Sutra: It is a sacred scripture of Buddhism which describes the elephant as “meditating” and “utterly composed.” It relates Buddhist values to the elephant’s physical attributes as follows:
• Dhamma is in his belly.
• The tusks represent “equanimity.”
• The large head represents “careful consideration.”
• The tail represents “solitude.”
• Representing meditation: Because elephants are so wise, many Buddhists believe elephant symbols can evoke “a clear state of mind” pursued through meditation.

This importance given to elephants in Buddhist faith explains their prominence in Buddhist sculpture as highlighted below:

• Bodhisattvas on elephants: In Buddhist sculpture, bodhisattvas are often represented as sitting on an elephant, which symbolises “knowledge brings power.”
• As part of the lion capital: An elephant along with a bull, a horse, and a lion have been decorated on a round abacus, altering four Dharmachakras or wheels of law on the monolithic lion capital found at Sarnath.
• Rock-cut elephant at Dhauli: It is the earliest Buddhist sculpture of Odisha, constructed by Ashoka. The sculpture looked like “the fore half of an elephant” emerging from hill-rock.
• Taming of Nalagiri’s sculpture at Amaravati: It is a masterly representation of a scene showing the subjugation or taming of Nalagiri, a mad elephant let loose on the Buddha in the streets of Rajagriha.
• Elephants crowning the pillars: In Karle caves, Dampati and the Mithuna figures are shown as the pairs riding the magnificent elephants crowning the pillars.

In this way, various scriptures describe Buddha as the epitome of an elephant-calm, poised, and alert. Though earlier Buddhist art represented him through various symbols, Mahayana Buddhism started portraying Buddha in human form.

At the end of the Second World War in 1945, the nations of Europe still claimed ownership of vast areas of the rest of the world, particularly in Asia and Africa. However, by 1975 most of these colonial territories had gained their independence.
Various factors prompted the European powers to relinquish their claim over colonies:
Internal pulls

• Opposition began to rise within the European countries against colonialism. For example, the Labour party in general favored the economic and political development of the colonies and opposed their exploitation. In fact, in the 1945 election, India’s freedom had been a campaign promise of the Labour party.
• Moreover, the war weakened the European states and they were not militarily or economically strong enough to hold on to their far-flung empires. Thus, the high maintenance costs and less profits from colonies pushed towards decolonisation.

External pressure

• The USA, an erstwhile colony of the British Empire, was hostile to imperialism. President Roosevelt and his successor, Truman, pressurized the British government to speed up independence for India.
  • They also wanted to see the end of the European empires because delays in granting independence to European colonies in Asia and Africa would encourage the development of communism in those areas.
  • Further, Americans looked on the newly-independent nations as potential markets and in the eyes of the USA, imperially protected markets gave the British and other Europeans an unfair advantage.
• The United Nations Organization, through the UN Charter, emphasized self-determination and fundamental human rights, putting pressure on colonial powers to decolonise. In 1960, a Declaration on Decolonisation was also adopted by UNGA.
• The USSR also added its voice to the chorus and constantly denounced imperialism.

Colonial resistance
The colonial powers divested themselves of their subordinate possessions, because internal pressures within their colonies left them with no other choice. Nationalist movements had been in existence in many of Europe’s overseas colonies, especially those in Asia.

• In India, the Indian National Congress Party had been agitating against British rule since 1885, while in south-east Asia, Vietnamese nationalists began to campaign against French rule during the 1920s. Because of movements like Quit India, and mutiny in the Royal Indian Navy, it became impossible for the imperialists to rule over the colonies anymore.
• The second world war gave a great stimulus to nationalist movements in a number of ways:
  • It destroyed the belief that Europeans were invincible. Japanese successes in the early part of the war showed that it was possible for non-Europeans to defeat European armies.
  • Asians and Africans became more aware of social and political matters as a result of their involvement in the war. The vast majority of them had never left their homeland before, and they were appalled at the contrast between their primitive living conditions and the relatively comfortable conditions they experienced even as members of the armed forces.

All the above factors encouraged nationalists all over the world to further intensify their campaigns. Moreover, imperial roles also came to be seen as incongruent with ‘modern’ goals in the fields of foreign and economic policy.

India is one of the fastest urbanizing countries in the world with a UN Report projecting the urbanization levels to reach approximately 50% by 2050 from 31% as per the 2011 Census. However, this development is taking place at the cost of urban green spaces.
This can be discerned from the following:

• Densification-prompted activities such as increased demand for housing are causing a rapid loss and fragmentation of both public and private green space.
• Activities such as infill development and redevelopment of land coupled with the real estate boom and skyrocketing land values force people to go in for maximising economic benefits with little or no priority to green space.
• Lack of necessary policy support and funds make urban green space-related issues insignificant and inefficacious.
• Official laxity in the strict implementation of regulations related to the maintenance of green cover and lack of concern among citizens for the same further worsens the situation.

To accommodate the increasing pressure on resources owing to rapid urbanisation, focus on urban green spaces is critical in creating inclusive, resilient, and sustainable cities due to the following reasons:

• Mental health and well-being: Depressive disorders are a major cause of disability in middle and high-income countries. Access to green spaces offers a place for people to relax, exercise, and socialize and improves their mental well-being. This reduces the need to treat anxiety and mental health conditions, thus mitigating economic costs while increasing the human resource output.
• Providing ecosystem services: Urban green spaces contribute to the resilience of cities in the face of climate change, as they provide important ecosystem services:
  • Almost 70% of all greenhouse emissions are generated from an urban built environment. Green vegetation in cities would lead to carbon sequestration.
  • It reduces the Urban Heat Island effect by providing shade and by cooling the air through the process of evapo-transpiration and reduces people’s vulnerability to heat stroke.
  • Trees and shrubs can improve air quality by removing both particulate matter and gases from the air thereby reducing the overall pollution, a major cause of respiratory and cardiovascular diseases.
  • Green spaces reduce the risk of flooding and improve water quality in streams, lakes and rivers.
• Biodiversity conservation: The disappearance of the ‘house sparrow’ is a clear indication of the harmful effects of urbanization, thus, establishing that green spaces provide a habitat for biodiversity.
• Economic benefits: Creation, maintenance, and management of green space generate employment opportunities while inviting investment in local economies and better valuation of commercial and residential properties.

Thus, there is a need to reorient our strategy of urban planning and management to accommodate the green vision and action. Green spaces are essential for ensuring a delicate balance between development and the environment. The importance of green space has also been highlighted in the Sustainable Development Goal 11 dealing with sustainable cities and communities to make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable.