The Union Budget 2023-24 has been presented in the Parliament. In 2005, the Government had started releasing a Gender Budget along with the Union budget. Gender Budgeting is a strategy to ensure that promises on gender equality show up in public budget allocations as well. However, achieving gender equality through Gender Budgeting has remained a challenge. The share of Gender Budget (in total Government Budget) has remained low despite growing at an annualized rate 13% since inception. With some reforms in the implementation, the Government can improve the efficacy of Gender Budgeting in terms of outcomes.

It observes that, “Gender Budgeting is concerned with gender-sensitive formulation of legislation, policies, plans, programmes and schemes; allocation and collection of resources; implementation and execution; monitoring, review, audit and impact assessment of programmes and schemes; and follow-up corrective action to address gender disparities.” It is not only about the Budget and it is not just a one-time activity. It is a continuous process that must be applied to all levels and stages of the policy process.

Doctrine of Reasonable classification under Article 14 of the Constitution of India refers to a lawful and justifiable categorisation of individuals or groups based on intelligible differentia that distinguishes them from others. This classification must have a rational nexus to the legislative objective it seeks to achieve.

It allows for tailored treatment, acknowledges diverse circumstances and is instrumental in addressing social inequalities without violating fundamental rights. The doctrine ensures fairness and prevents arbitrary discrimination, permitting the legislature to enact laws that cater to specific needs while upholding the constitutional principles of equality and justice. Judicial scrutiny ensures that classifications are reasonable, non-arbitrary and serve a legitimate purpose

electromagnetic radiation

Electromagnetic radiation encompasses a range of energy waves, including visible light, microwaves, and X-rays. These waves travel at the speed of light and have both electric and magnetic field components. The difference between various types of electromagnetic radiation lies in their wavelength and frequency. For instance, X-rays have much shorter wavelengths compared to visible light, which gives them higher photon energy. Understanding electromagnetic radiation is crucial because it explains how different forms of energy interact with matter.

X-rays fall within the high-energy part of the electromagnetic spectrum.

They have wavelengths ranging from 0.01 to 10 nanometers.

photon energy

Photon energy relates to the energy carried by individual photons, the basic units of light and other electromagnetic radiation. The energy of a photon is directly proportional to its frequency and inversely proportional to its wavelength. This means that shorter wavelengths correspond to higher photon energies. For example, in X-rays:

Soft X-rays have lower photon energies, ranging from 100 electron volts (eV) to 10 kiloelectron volts (keV).

Hard X-rays have higher photon energies, ranging from 10 keV to 100 keV.

Photon energy determines how deeply radiation can penetrate materials, making it essential for applications in imaging and material analysis.

medical imaging

X-rays are a pivotal tool in medical imaging, utilized to view internal structures of the body. There are two main types of X-rays used in this field: soft and hard X-rays.

Soft X-rays: These are ideal for imaging soft tissues, like muscles and organs, due to their lower penetration abilities. They provide detailed images of biological tissues without excessive exposure to radiation.

Hard X-rays: These penetrate deeper and are primarily used for visualizing dense structures such as bones and teeth. Dentists and orthopedists often rely on hard X-rays for accurate diagnosis.

Medical imaging with X-rays is non-invasive, allowing doctors to detect and diagnose conditions that would otherwise require exploratory surgery.

material analysis

Material analysis involves examining the composition and characteristics of various materials using different types of X-ray radiation. Due to their unique properties, both soft and hard X-rays are instrumental in this field.

Soft X-rays: These are used for analyzing surface layers of materials at the microscopic level. Techniques like X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) rely on soft X-rays to study elemental composition and chemical states.

Hard X-rays: With their ability to penetrate deeply, they are used in techniques like X-ray crystallography to determine the atomic and molecular structure of crystalline substances.

By utilizing X-rays in material analysis, scientists can develop new materials and ensure the quality of existing ones across various industries.

LAN, MAN, and WAN are different types of computer networks that connect devices over different areas. A LAN (Local Area Network) is a small network that covers a small area, like a home, office, or school. It lets devices like computers and printers share information quickly in that small space. A MAN (Metropolitan Area Network) is bigger than a LAN and covers a city or large campus. It connects several smaller networks in that area.

A WAN (Wide Area Network) is the biggest type, covering very large areas like countries or even the whole world. The internet is the most famous example of a WAN. Each type of network gets bigger in size and area covered, from LAN to MAN to WAN.

LAN

LAN stands for local area network. It is a group of network devices that allow communication between various connected devices. Private ownership has control over the local area network rather than the public. LAN has a shorter propagation delay than MAN as well as WAN. It covers smaller areas such as colleges, schools, hospitals, and so on.

MAN

MAN stands for metropolitan area network. It covers a larger area than LAN such as small towns, cities, etc. MAN connects two or more computers that reside within the same or completely different cities. MAN is expensive and should or might not be owned by one organization.

WAN

WAN stands for wide area network. It covers a large area than LAN as well as a MAN such as country/continent etc. WAN is expensive and should or might not be owned by one organization. PSTN or satellite medium is used for wide area networks.

‎It is generally held that Babur’s guns proved decisive in battle, firstly because Ibrahim Lodi lacked any field artillery, but also because the sound of the cannon frightened Lodi’s elephants, causing them to trample Lodi’s own men. However a reading of the contemporary sources show that more than the gun, it was the tactics which helped in winning the day. The new war tactics introduced by Babur were the tulughma and the araba. Tulughma meant dividing the whole army into various units, viz. the Left, the Right and the Centre. The Left and Right divisions were further subdivided into Forward and Rear divisions. Through this a small army could be used to surround the enemy from all the sides. the Centre Forward division was then provided with carts (araba) which were placed in rows facing the enemy and tied to each other with animal hide ropes. Behind them were placed cannons protected and supported by mantelets which could be used to easily manoeuvre the canons. These two tactics made Babur’s artillery lethal. The guns and cannons could be fired without any fear of being hit as they were shielded by the bullock carts which were held in place due to the hide ropes holding them together. the nozzle of the heavy cannons could also be easily changed as they could be manoeuvered by the mantelets which were provided with wheels.