Important International Institutions

Model Answer

Introduction

The United Nations (UN) was established in 1945 with the goal of promoting peace and cooperation among nations. However, over the years, its structure and mechanisms have been criticized for being outdated and not aligned with the contemporary geopolitical realities. The statement that the UN is a “frozen, 1945-invented mechanism” reflects these concerns. In this context, we will examine the validity of this view by discussing various challenges faced by the UN in the current global scenario.

Issues in the UN System

1. Failure in Global Conflicts: The UN Security Council (UNSC) has often failed to address key global conflicts, primarily due to the veto power of its five permanent members (P-5). These countries often block resolutions that do not align with their interests, leading to inaction. A clear example is Russia’s annexation of Crimea and the subsequent invasion of Ukraine, where the UNSC could not take meaningful action due to Russia’s veto. Similarly, the ongoing conflict between Israel and Hamas has seen little intervention from the UN, despite widespread international calls for action.
2. Resource Constraints: The UN’s ability to effectively address global issues is hampered by insufficient funding from member states. For example, UN peacekeeping missions, which play a vital role in conflict zones, often face budget shortages, undermining their ability to maintain stability in areas such as Africa and South Asia.
3. Lack of Representation: The UNSC’s structure, unchanged since 1945, lacks adequate representation for emerging powers and regions, particularly countries in Latin America, Africa, and South Asia. This has led to calls for reform, as the current system does not reflect the global balance of power.

The Need for Reform

Despite the widespread recognition of these issues, the UN’s reform process is hindered by a complex procedure. Any changes to the UN Charter require the approval of two-thirds of member states and all permanent members of the UNSC, making meaningful reform difficult.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the UN’s mechanisms, established in 1945, have indeed become outdated and fail to address modern global challenges effectively. For the UN to remain relevant, it must undergo significant reforms that reflect the current geopolitical landscape and better address the needs of the global community.

Model Answer

The International Court of Justice (ICJ) is the principal judicial body of the United Nations (UN), established in 1945 under the UN Charter. It consists of fifteen independent judges, who are elected for nine-year terms by the UN General Assembly and the Security Council. One-third of the judges are replaced every three years to ensure continuity in its functioning.

Mandate of the ICJ

The ICJ’s primary function is to settle legal disputes between states based on international law. It also provides advisory opinions on legal questions referred by UN organs or specialized agencies. The Court plays a crucial role in the peaceful resolution of international disputes.

Challenges Faced by the ICJ

1. Political Influence on Judgments

Judges, despite being independent, sometimes vote in ways that reflect national interests. A notable example is in 2022, when judges from Russia and China were the only ones to vote against a ruling directing Russia to stop its military actions in Ukraine, showing how political affiliations can influence judicial decisions.

2. Lack of Enforcement Power

Though the ICJ’s rulings are legally binding, they depend on voluntary compliance by states. For example, any adverse ruling against Israel is often blocked by a US veto in the Security Council. This lack of enforcement power hinders the Court’s effectiveness.

3. Selective State Participation

Some powerful states choose not to participate in ICJ cases, undermining its authority. For instance, the US refused to accept the Court’s jurisdiction in the 1986 Nicaragua case, demonstrating a selective approach to international law.

4. Procedural Delays

ICJ’s proceedings can be slow. A prominent example is the 2019 case filed by Gambia against Myanmar for the genocide of Rohingya Muslims, which remains ongoing after years of litigation.

5. Limited Jurisdiction

The ICJ can only adjudicate cases if states consent to its jurisdiction, which limits its reach. For instance, the US has excluded itself from disputes involving military actions.

Conclusion

To enhance the ICJ’s effectiveness, reforms are needed, including greater political neutrality, enforcement mechanisms, and jurisdictional expansion.

Model Answer

Introduction

The World Trade Organization (WTO) plays a vital role in regulating international trade, aiming to foster stability and certainty. However, emerging global challenges have put the relevance of the WTO under scrutiny, revealing both its vulnerabilities and its importance in maintaining multilateral trade cooperation.

Emerging Challenges

1. Growing Protectionism The COVID-19 pandemic and the Russia-Ukraine war have seen an uptick in protectionist measures, with countries bypassing WTO regulations to protect their economies. For instance, nations like the US, Germany, and France ramped up subsidies, trade barriers, and public procurement policies to shield their populations from economic shocks, undermining the WTO’s trade liberalization efforts.
2. Decoupling as Strategic Policy Rising geopolitical tensions, particularly between the US and China, have led to efforts aimed at decoupling markets, which contradicts the WTO’s mission of promoting global economic integration. In 2022, the US imposed export restrictions on semiconductor chips and high-tech equipment to China, highlighting the tension between national security concerns and WTO objectives.
3. Paralysis in Dispute Settlement System (DSS) The WTO’s Dispute Settlement System has faced significant setbacks due to the blockade of appointments to the Appellate Body. As of November 2020, the body has been unable to review appeals, hampering the WTO’s capacity to enforce its rulings.
4. Rise of Free Trade Agreements (FTAs) The proliferation of FTAs, which establish competing global value chains, has diluted the central role of the WTO in trade regulation. Different trade standards emerging from FTAs undermine the uniformity and necessity of WTO rules.
5. Negotiation Deadlock Persistent deadlocks in negotiations, particularly on agricultural trade and services, reflect the difficulties in reconciling the interests of developed and developing nations. Key issues like the movement of skilled professionals and agricultural reforms remain unresolved.

WTO’s Continued Relevance

Despite these challenges, the WTO remains a cornerstone of global trade regulation for several reasons:

1. Facilitating Dialogue The WTO provides an essential platform for countries to negotiate trade rules, ensuring that smaller nations and least developed countries have a voice in global trade discussions.
2. Response to Crisis The WTO’s role in managing trade during crises, such as its approval of IP rights waivers for COVID-19 vaccines, demonstrates its capacity to facilitate cooperative responses to global emergencies.
3. Guarding Against Economic Fragmentation Amidst geopolitical tensions and the rise of trade weaponization, the WTO is vital in preventing economic fragmentation, ensuring stability and predictability in global trade.

Conclusion

While the WTO faces significant challenges, including growing protectionism, geopolitical tensions, and stalled negotiations, its role in fostering dialogue, responding to crises, and preventing fragmentation remains indispensable. However, for the WTO to remain relevant, substantial reforms are necessary to address the distinctive challenges of the 21st century, ensuring it can effectively manage the complexities of modern global trade.

Model Answer

The International Maritime Organization (IMO), a specialized agency of the UN, plays a pivotal role in promoting environmental sustainability, security, and safe practices within the maritime industry.

Mitigating Environmental Damage

IMO has implemented several key conventions to reduce environmental harm from shipping activities. The International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL) is a primary tool to combat marine pollution, setting regulations to prevent oil spills and the discharge of harmful substances from ships. Additionally, the IMO has developed strategies to address marine plastic litter and underwater noise pollution, helping protect marine life. The Ballast Water Management Convention helps control the spread of invasive species by regulating ballast water, preserving biodiversity and marine ecosystems.

Ensuring Security

IMO is critical in ensuring maritime security by preventing piracy and other illicit activities. The Djibouti Code of Conduct, supported by the IMO, helps member states combat piracy in regions like the western Indian Ocean. Furthermore, IMO provides technical assistance and training to developing nations to build maritime security capacity, focusing on regions like West and Central Africa.

Fostering Sustainable Practices

IMO’s initiatives also emphasize sustainability. Through the Energy Efficiency Design Index (EEDI), IMO has set mandatory energy-efficiency requirements for ships, aiming to reduce carbon emissions from the sector. The Hong Kong Convention ensures safe and environmentally responsible ship recycling, minimizing hazardous waste impact on coastal ecosystems. Furthermore, IMO’s London Convention promotes climate change mitigation by regulating carbon capture in subsea geological formations.

Conclusion

IMO’s comprehensive approach to environmental protection, security, and sustainability is vital for fostering a safe, efficient, and eco-friendly maritime industry. India’s re-election to the IMO Council reflects the importance of global cooperation in ensuring sustainable use of oceans and aligning with Sustainable Development Goal 14 (SDG 14).