Disaster Management

Model Answer

Land-use change refers to human-induced modifications to the landscape, often for economic or developmental purposes. In India, rapid and often unsustainable land-use changes have heightened the frequency and intensity of natural disasters.

1. Urbanization and Concretization

Urbanization in India has led to the conversion of wetlands, forests, and hillslopes into impervious concrete surfaces. This disrupts natural drainage systems, increasing surface runoff, and exacerbating flooding. For instance, recent urban floods in cities like Mumbai, Delhi, and Kerala have been partly attributed to the encroachment of wetlands and deforestation, which had previously acted as natural flood buffers. Additionally, such land-use changes reduce groundwater recharge, making regions more vulnerable to droughts during dry spells.

2. Deforestation

The widespread deforestation to accommodate agricultural expansion and urban development contributes to the disruption of ecosystems that naturally regulate water flow. This has led to an increased risk of floods, soil erosion, and the occurrence of extreme weather events such as heatwaves and cyclones. Loss of forests also diminishes the resilience of local environments to climate change, thus intensifying the impacts of natural disasters.

3. Large-Scale Infrastructure Projects

Infrastructure projects, including large hydroelectric dams, roads, and railways, have resulted in habitat destruction and land degradation. For example, hydropower projects disrupt river ecosystems, potentially causing flash floods, Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs), and landslides. Construction in mountainous areas, particularly for tourism, has led to significant landslides and road damage, as seen in Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh.

4. Coastal and Floodplain Construction

Illegal construction along floodplains and coastal areas increases exposure to flooding, coastal erosion, and storm surges. For example, unauthorized constructions in Punjab’s Ghaggar and Sutlej floodplains have led to devastating floods. Similarly, land reclamation in coastal areas makes communities more vulnerable to sea-level rise and tsunamis.

5. Agricultural Practices

Mono-cropping practices reduce crop diversity, making agriculture more susceptible to pests and diseases. This reduces food security and exacerbates vulnerability to droughts, contributing to economic and environmental disasters.

Conclusion

Sustainable land-use planning, including zoning regulations, reforestation, and comprehensive environmental impact assessments, is essential to mitigate the impact of these land-use changes and the natural disasters they fuel.

Model Answer

Causes Behind the Rising Frequency of Urban Floods in India

India has experienced a significant rise in urban floods in recent years, with notable instances in Chennai (2004), Mumbai (2005), Delhi (2009), Guwahati and Delhi (2010), and Bangalore (2022). This increasing frequency can be attributed to several factors:

• Changing Weather Patterns: Climate change has led to more unpredictable weather, with high-intensity rainfall and cloudbursts occurring within short spans. This has caused storm surges, especially in coastal cities, overwhelming drainage systems (Source: National Disaster Management Authority).
• Concretization and Urbanization: Rapid urbanization has resulted in the concretization of large land areas, reducing natural soil infiltration and increasing runoff. As a result, water quickly overwhelms storm drains and floods urban areas (Source: NDMA Guidelines on Management of Urban Flooding).
• Stormwater and Waste Mismanagement: Inadequate drainage capacity, worsened by solid waste and construction debris clogging drains, significantly reduces their capacity to handle heavy rainfall, causing overflow and flooding (Source: Ministry of Urban Development).
• Encroachments: Unplanned urban expansion has led to encroachments on natural drainage paths, lake beds, and river floodplains, decreasing their ability to absorb rainwater and increasing flood risk (Source: NDMA).
• Inadequate Infrastructure: Aging or inadequate urban infrastructure, including limited pipeline capacity, insufficient flood storage, and poorly maintained pumping stations, exacerbates flooding (Source: Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs).

Government Measures to Mitigate Urban Flood Risks

The Indian government has implemented several initiatives to address urban flood risks:

• National Guidelines on Urban Flood Management: Following the 2005 Mumbai floods, the NDMA introduced guidelines specifically for urban flooding, treating it as a unique disaster type separate from riverine floods (Source: NDMA).
• Sponge Cities Mission and AMRUT: Programs like the Sponge Cities Mission and Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT) support flood-resilient urban planning, encouraging measures like green roofs, rainwater harvesting, and rain gardens (Source: AMRUT).
• Restoration of Lakes and Wetlands: Cities like Bangalore and Mumbai have taken initiatives to rejuvenate lakes and wetlands, which can help absorb floodwaters and enhance biodiversity (Source: Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change).
• Nature-Based Solutions: Urban areas are incorporating nature-based solutions, such as Bhopal’s green-blue master plan, Chennai’s “Water as Leverage” initiative, and Delhi’s Master Plan 2041, to manage urban water flow and improve environmental resilience (Source: City Planning Initiatives).

While India has made strides in addressing urban flood risks, ongoing efforts to improve local governance, waste management, and climate awareness are crucial as the urban population continues to grow, projected to reach 814 million by 2050.

Model Answer

The National Disaster Response Force (NDRF) plays a crucial role in disaster management in India, having saved over 148,000 lives and evacuated more than 700,000 individuals since its inception. However, it faces several key challenges in executing its responsibilities effectively.

Key Challenges

1. Inadequate Capital Expenditure: The budget for capital expenditure has been declining, hindering the development of necessary infrastructure and capacity for NDRF battalions.
2. Low Training Budget: The allocation for training NDRF personnel has remained low, between Rs. 1 to 2 crore, with actual utilization ranging from 50% to 80%. This limits the ability to provide modern training facilities that meet international standards.
3. Increased Operational Demands: NDRF personnel are increasingly engaged in a wide range of rescue operations, from minor incidents to major disasters, which strains their resources and capabilities.
4. Lack of Continuity: As a 100% deputationist force, personnel serve for only seven years, leading to a lack of continuity and institutional knowledge within the organization.
5. Insufficient Equipment: There is a significant shortage of critical equipment, which hampers the NDRF’s ability to respond effectively and quickly to disasters.
6. Dual Control Structure: The ambiguity in command and control, with the Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) managing funds and execution while the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) has administrative control, complicates decision-making and response times.

Measures to Enhance Effectiveness

1. Review of Personnel Structure: While the deputationist model is beneficial, incorporating trained youth from other organizations, such as NCC cadets, could enhance operational capacity.
2. Financial Cooperation: Establishing Permanent Disaster Management Funds and ensuring regular contributions from state and central budgets can address financial constraints.
3. Training Infrastructure Investment: Specific budget allocations should be made for upgrading training facilities and procuring state-of-the-art equipment to meet international standards.
4. Timely Equipment Procurement: A systematic review and expedited procurement of necessary equipment should be prioritized to ensure readiness.
5. Community Capacity Building: Enhancing disaster response capabilities at the state and community levels is essential, as the frequency of disasters is increasing.
6. Pre-positioning of Forces: Developing a strategy for pre-positioning response teams at critical locations can improve resource availability during emergencies.

By addressing these challenges and implementing these measures, the NDRF can significantly enhance its effectiveness in disaster response and recovery.

Roadmap for Answer Writing

1. Introduction

• Briefly introduce the National Disaster Response Force (NDRF) and its purpose under the Disaster Management Act of 2005.
• State the importance of NDRF in disaster management in India.

2. Key Challenges Faced by NDRF :

• Inadequate Capital Expenditure
  • Explain how declining budgets affect infrastructure and capacity building.
• Low Budget for Training
  • Discuss the insufficient allocation for training personnel and its impact on readiness.
• Increased Operational Demands
  • Describe how the growing variety of rescue operations strains resources.
• Lack of Continuity
  • Highlight the effects of a 100% deputationist model on institutional knowledge and experience.
• Insufficient Equipment
  • Mention the shortage of critical equipment and how it hampers response capabilities.
• Dual Control Structure
  • Explain the complications arising from having two different authorities (MHA and NDMA) managing NDRF.

3. Measures to Improve Effectiveness :

• Review of Personnel Structure
  • Suggest diversifying the personnel structure to include trained youth from other organizations.
• Financial Cooperation
  • Propose establishing Permanent Disaster Management Funds and regular contributions to enhance financial resources.
• Investment in Training Infrastructure
  • Recommend specific budget allocations for upgrading training facilities and equipment.
• Timely Equipment Procurement
  • Suggest a systematic review and expedited procurement process for essential equipment.
• Community Capacity Building
  • Emphasize the need to enhance local disaster response capabilities.
• Pre-positioning of Response Forces
  • Recommend strategies for pre-positioning teams in critical areas to improve disaster readiness.

4. Conclusion :

• Summarize the challenges and proposed measures.
• Highlight the significance of improving NDRF’s effectiveness for better disaster management in India.

Relevant Facts and Sources

1. NDRF Achievements: “NDRF has saved over 1.48 lakh human lives and evacuated over 7 lakh stranded individuals since its inception.” (Source: NDRF Reports)
2. Inadequate Capital Expenditure: “The actual expenditure in the capital sector has shown a declining trend over the years.” (Source: Government Budget Reports)
3. Training Budget: “Provision for training NDRF personnel has remained low at Rs. 1 to 2 crore, with utilization between 50% to 80%.” (Source: Budget Estimates Analysis)
4. Operational Demands: “NDRF personnel are engaged in a varied range of rescue situations, which is increasing daily.” (Source: NDRF Reports)
5. Dual Control Structure: “NDRF operates under the dual control of the Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) and the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA).” (Source: Disaster Management Act, 2005)
6. Equipment Shortages: “There is a significant shortage of almost all items authorized for NDRF, affecting response capabilities.” (Source: NDRF Internal Reports)

Using this roadmap and the relevant facts, you can construct a comprehensive answer addressing the challenges and proposed solutions for enhancing the effectiveness of the NDRF.

Model Answer

Formation of Cloudbursts

Cloudbursts are intense, localized rainfall events that typically occur in hilly regions. They are characterized by a rapid, heavy downpour of over 100 mm of rain in an hour, as defined by the Indian Meteorological Department (IMD). These events primarily occur in areas like the Himalayan states, where specific topographic and meteorological conditions prevail.

The process of cloudburst formation begins when moisture-laden air ascends a hilly terrain. This upward movement, known as “orographic lift,” causes the air to cool and form a vertical column of cumulus clouds. The rising air keeps raindrops suspended within the clouds, allowing new droplets to form and existing ones to grow larger. Lightning further delays rainfall within the clouds. Eventually, when these clouds can no longer hold the accumulated moisture, they burst, leading to intense and localized rainfall in a small geographical area of about 20 to 30 square kilometers.

Impact of Cloudbursts

1. Flash Floods: The rapid accumulation of rainwater can overwhelm rivers and drainage systems, causing flash floods, especially downstream from the storm.
2. Landslides: In mountainous areas, the large volume of water can lead to landslides, mudslides, and extensive flooding.
3. Loss of Life and Property: Cloudbursts result in the destruction of homes, infrastructure, crops, and loss of life, leading to a severe economic impact.
4. Environmental Degradation: Flash floods and debris flow disrupt forest ecosystems and degrade the land, displacing trees and eroding soil.

Measures to Mitigate the Impact

To reduce the effects of cloudbursts, several measures can be adopted:

1. Safer Settlement Planning: Build settlements away from flood-prone areas and avoid constructing near streams that may flood during heavy rains.
2. Improved Forecasting and Technology: Use advanced weather monitoring systems, such as dense radar networks, to predict and warn of cloudbursts in advance.
3. Community Participation: Train local communities, especially in rural areas, to understand disaster risks and take precautionary actions.
4. Nature-Based Solutions: Implement eco-friendly measures, such as large-scale plantation drives, to restore fragile landscapes and reduce the impact of natural disasters.

By combining these strategies, the devastating effects of cloudbursts can be minimized, ensuring better preparedness and response in vulnerable areas.