Literature

The accounts of Greek historians provide some of the earliest and most comprehensive descriptions of ancient India. There is indirect evidence from two epic poems, the Iliad and the Odyssey, written by Greek poet Homer and direct evidence from Greek historians who visited and wrote about India such as Megasthenes, Arrian, and Strabo.
Social conditions in ancient India:

• Patriarchy in Aryan culture: Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey mentions the principal traits of Aryan culture like male-dominated society, practice of burial of the dead body, cremation etc.
• Matriarchy in South: Megasthenes mentions about the Pandya kingdom, which was ruled by women and was celebrated for pearls.
• God worship: Megasthenes in his book “Indica” mentions about Heracles and Dionysus as Indian gods, the earliest description of the worship of Vishnu and Shiva respectively.
• Caste system: Megasthenes mentions the division of Indian society into seven distinct groups evident from the functioning of the caste system (occupations being hereditary in nature and restriction on intergroup marriages).
• Material culture: Arrian mentions the large number of cities, thus the Mauryan period witnessed rapid development of material culture in the Gangetic basin.
• Condition of women: Alexander’s historians provide us with important information about the sati system, the sale of girls in marketplaces by poor parents.

Economic conditions in ancient India

• During Vedic times: Homer’s texts represent agriculture and pastoralism as the principal sources of livelihood. The people domesticated horses, which were used for riding and for driving carts.
• Merchant associations during Mauryas: According to Strabo, apart from independent artisans, the armourers and shipbuilders were employed by the State and paid a wage. Most of the artisans either worked individually or as members of associations (shreni or puga).
• Agriculture during Mauryas: Megasthenes mentioned about the special class of farmers to cultivate the agricultural lands and formed the majority. The peasants were producing two crops in a year, which reflects the good fertility of land in early India.
• Irrigation during Mauryas: Megasthenes mentions rivers, which served the dual purpose of transport, navigation and irrigation. Megasthenes gives full credit to irrigation for the ever flourishing harvests of India.
• Trade and Commerce during Mauryas: Greek and Roman accounts of the first and second centuries mention many Indian ports and items of trade. The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea and Ptolemy’s Geography, both written in Greek, provide valuable data for the study of ancient geography and commerce. Further, there were well developed roads, which were used as trade routes.

While Greek accounts of ancient India do provide some valuable insights into the social and economic conditions of the time, they should be approached with caution and seen as one perspective among many as evident from the following examples:

• Megasthenes mentions the absence of slavery in India. Whereas, we know of a tax termed “vishti”, which was forced labour in lieu of tax. Kautilya also described different kinds of slaves.
• Megasthenes claims that there was absence of private land as all land belonged to the State whereas Arthaśāstra of Kautilya refers to the land grants of various types such as Brahmadeya, Devdana, Agrahara.

To gain a more complete understanding of ancient Indian society, it is important to consult a range of sources, including Indian texts and archaeological evidence.