India’s federal structure is often described as “quasi-federal” or “unitary with federal features,” meaning that while it recognizes and incorporates federalism, it leans significantly towards central authority. This orientation toward the central government is rooted in the Constitution of India, which establishes a framework that allows the Union (central government) to exercise considerable control over the states in various areas.

Key Constitutional Provisions Supporting Central Orientation

1. Division of Powers (Union, State, and Concurrent Lists)
   • • The Constitution provides three lists in the Seventh Schedule:
       • Union List: Contains subjects on which only the central government can legislate, including defense, foreign affairs, and atomic energy.
       • State List: Contains subjects under the states’ jurisdiction, like police and public health.
       • Concurrent List: Allows both the central and state governments to legislate, but in case of a conflict, central laws prevail.
     • This structure gives the central government the final say on several key subjects, particularly in the Concurrent List, tilting the balance of power towards the center​
2. Power to Override State Laws
   • Article 254 allows central laws to override state laws on Concurrent List subjects if there is a conflict.
   • The President can also withhold assent to state bills, further empowering the central government to control state legislation.
3. Emergency Provisions
   • The Constitution provides the President with significant powers to declare emergencies (Articles 352, 356, and 360):
     • National Emergency (Article 352): Expands the power of the center over states, allowing Parliament to legislate on all subjects.
     • President’s Rule (Article 356): Allows the central government to take over a state’s administration if it fails to function according to constitutional provisions.
     • Financial Emergency (Article 360): Enables the center to control state financial matters.
   • These provisions allow the central government to intervene in state affairs and even take direct control under extraordinary circumstances​
4. Role of the Governor
   • Governors, appointed by the President, serve as the central government’s representatives in states. They have powers to:
     • Reserve certain bills for the President’s assent.
     • Send reports to the President recommending President’s Rule under Article 356.
   • This role often makes governors an instrument of central influence in states, as they are not elected by the state​
5. Residual Powers
   • In cases where powers are not specified in the Union, State, or Concurrent Lists, the central government retains control. Unlike other federal systems, where residual powers are often left to the states, the central government in India has these powers, further centralizing authority.

Reasons Behind Central Dominance in Indian Federalism

1. Historical Context
   • India’s choice of a strong center emerged from the challenges of unifying diverse regions post-independence and dealing with partition. A strong central government was seen as necessary for national unity and stability.
2. Preventing Regional Disparities
   • With varying levels of development across states, a central authority helps ensure balanced development and address inequalities, such as providing special assistance to states with weaker economies.
3. Maintaining National Integrity
   • The center’s authority is also geared toward protecting national security and unity, particularly given the linguistic, cultural, and ethnic diversity of the states. This was a significant factor in the framers’ decision to centralize certain powers.

Criticisms and Challenges

• Critics argue that India’s federal structure overly empowers the central government, sometimes limiting states’ ability to manage local issues effectively. This can create tension, especially when state governments are led by opposition parties.
• Some states have called for a more balanced distribution of powers and greater financial autonomy, as seen in debates surrounding the Goods and Services Tax (GST) Council and revenue sharing.

The President of India, as the head of state, holds an esteemed and authoritative position in the country’s governance. However, in practice, the President’s powers are mostly symbolic or limited due to the structure of India’s parliamentary democracy. This scenario can indeed be likened to an elderly figure in a family, respected and revered, but often unable to take direct action without the support of the “young members”—in this case, the Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers.

Constitutional Powers of the President

• Executive Powers: The President is the supreme commander of the armed forces, appoints the Prime Minister, and has the power to call or dissolve the Parliament. However, these powers are largely exercised based on the advice of the Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers, per Article 74 of the Constitution​
• Legislative Powers: The President has the power to summon and prorogue Parliament sessions, give assent to bills, and can issue ordinances when Parliament is not in session. But, in most cases, these legislative actions are guided by the government’s decisions.
• Judicial Powers: The President has certain judicial powers, such as granting pardons. Even here, these decisions often rely on recommendations from the relevant departments.

Limitations of the President’s Role

• Bound by Advice: The Constitution mandates that the President acts on the advice of the Council of Ministers. Although the President may request reconsideration, once the Council reaffirms its advice, the President is constitutionally bound to follow it. This can limit independent decision-making.
• Ceremonial Role: Many functions performed by the President are ceremonial, such as representing India at foreign events or hosting dignitaries. This symbolic role is crucial for the unity of the state but does not entail direct political power.

Instances of Assertive Presidential Actions

While generally bound by ministerial advice, some Presidents have exercised their discretion under exceptional circumstances:

• Refusal to Sign Ordinances: Presidents like Dr. APJ Abdul Kalam have questioned certain ordinances, asking for reconsideration by the government. While the President ultimately cannot reject the bill if re-presented, this step can influence governmental reconsideration.
• Role in Government Formation: When no party has a clear majority, the President can exercise discretion in inviting a leader to form the government, as seen during various coalition governments in India. This allows the President some level of influence, albeit temporary.

Comparison to a Family Elder

In many ways, the President’s role resembles an elder in a family:

• Authority with Limitations: Just as an elder may have authority but lacks direct control over young members, the President’s powers are significant in theory but are largely advisory or ceremonial in practice.
• Respect and Symbolic Power: The President is a figure of respect and national unity, much like a respected elder who holds a family together symbolically, even if not actively involved in daily decisions.
• Ability to Influence but Not Control: Like an elder who can advise but cannot enforce, the President can suggest or question government actions but cannot overrule the decisions of the Prime Minister and ministers.

Floods and droughts have consistently posed severe challenges to Bihar’s growth, disrupting agriculture, infrastructure, and livelihoods. Science and technology offer valuable solutions to mitigate the impacts of these natural disasters and improve disaster management in Bihar.

1. Early Warning Systems

• Advanced technology allows for timely predictions of extreme weather events, helping Bihar prepare for floods and droughts. The Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) and Central Water Commission (CWC) employ tools such as Doppler radar, satellite imagery, and meteorological data to issue warnings and track monsoon patterns. These systems are essential for communities in high-risk areas like northern Bihar, which is vulnerable to rivers originating in Nepal that flood during the monsoon season.

2. Prediction and Forecasting Models

• Short- and long-term weather forecasts, including flood forecasting by the CWC, help authorities monitor water levels in rivers and predict flood severity. Predictive models combined with satellite technology provide essential information to make proactive decisions regarding flood control and response, lessening the damage to crops, homes, and infrastructure.

3. Monitoring and Surveillance

• Drones and satellite imagery, supported by organizations like ISRO, provide real-time assessments of flood-affected areas, allowing the government to direct resources more effectively. Bihar has partnered with ISRO to monitor and respond to flood and drought conditions by using satellites like Cartosat-2 and Oceansat-2, which provide high-resolution images critical for assessing the scale and severity of disasters.

4. Hazard Mapping and Risk Assessment

• Science-based hazard mapping, conducted by agencies like the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA), identifies areas most at risk of floods and droughts. This information informs urban planning and infrastructure development, enabling Bihar to focus on building flood-resistant structures and establishing emergency resources in vulnerable regions.

5. Communication and Information Dissemination

• The state uses mobile apps and social media for early warnings and public alerts. For instance, the Bihar government developed the Indravajra app, which sends alerts about lightning risks. Digital communication tools ensure that accurate, real-time information reaches remote areas, helping communities prepare for extreme weather.

6. Infrastructure Development

• Science and engineering advancements aid in developing resilient infrastructure. For example, river embankments in flood-prone areas are fortified with durable materials, while geo-textiles are used for protecting riverbanks against erosion. Projects like interlinking Bihar’s rivers, such as the Kosi-Mechi link, aim to balance water resources, reducing both flood and drought risks.

7. Post-Disaster Recovery and Reconstruction

• Innovative technology like 3D printing can expedite the reconstruction of damaged structures. With faster production of replacement parts for damaged infrastructure, 3D printing offers a cost-effective approach to restoring essential facilities. This technology can significantly reduce recovery time and help communities rebuild after severe weather events.

India has strengthened its defense capabilities significantly under the “Make in India” initiative, which aims to enhance self-reliance in defense through indigenous development and production of advanced military technology. Here’s an overview of key scientific advancements under this program that have contributed to India’s defense and security:

1. Indigenous Weapon Systems

The Indian government has launched and indigenized several critical defense platforms:

• Missile Systems: The Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) has developed various missile systems such as the BrahMos, a supersonic cruise missile co-developed with Russia, and Agni series ballistic missiles. These systems bolster India’s defense and deterrence capabilities, showcasing advancements in both technology and strategic deterrence.
• Missile Testing Facility: A new missile testing range has been approved in Andhra Pradesh, providing critical infrastructure for testing advanced missiles domestically and minimizing dependence on foreign test facilities.

2. Aerospace Advancements

• Fighter Aircraft: The Light Combat Aircraft (LCA) Tejas, designed and developed by Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL), strengthens India’s air defense. It has been approved for induction by the Indian Air Force, reducing reliance on imported fighter jets.
• Drones and Surveillance: India has introduced the MQ-9B Predator drones from the U.S., which enhance maritime surveillance, target engagement, and anti-submarine operations. Efforts are underway to develop indigenous drone technology, addressing critical operational requirements in border security.

3. Naval Power

• Nuclear Submarines: India is building indigenous nuclear-powered submarines like the INS Arihant series, crucial for strategic deterrence in the Indian Ocean. These submarines enhance underwater combat capabilities, supporting maritime security and addressing regional threats.
• Warships and Carriers: The INS Vikrant, India’s first indigenous aircraft carrier, symbolizes technological progress and strengthens India’s maritime presence.

4. Armored and Ground Systems

• Main Battle Tanks: India has upgraded its armored capabilities with indigenously designed tanks like the Arjun MBT and modernized the existing T-90 Bhishma tanks. These advancements increase the Army’s ground combat power, particularly along challenging terrains.
• Advanced Communication and Surveillance: Enhanced command and control systems, including real-time tracking and perimeter protection systems, have been implemented to support internal and border security.

5. Defense Manufacturing and Strategic Policy Support

• Defense Industrial Corridors: The establishment of corridors in Tamil Nadu and Uttar Pradesh has attracted investment, boosted local defense manufacturing, and created jobs, bringing a regional focus to defense production.
• Strategic Partnerships and FDI: Policies have encouraged partnerships with global defense firms, allowing for knowledge transfer and technological advancement. Additionally, foreign direct investment (FDI) has been liberalized, with up to 74% allowed through the automatic route, enhancing defense production capabilities.

6. Boost to Domestic Industry

• The Positive Indigenization Lists include items that must be sourced domestically, banning the import of 700+ defense items, including ammunition, electronic systems, and aircraft components. This policy ensures demand for Indian manufacturers, fostering the growth of domestic industries, including Micro, Small, and Medium Enterprises (MSMEs).

India’s commitment to self-reliance in defense is evident in these developments, contributing to improved national security and reducing dependency on foreign arms. With a focus on technology, partnerships, and indigenization, India is well-positioned to become a key player in global defense production.

These initiatives and achievements illustrate the broad impact of the Make in India program on defense, from equipment to industry policy, underscoring India’s resolve to achieve technological sovereignty in defense.

India’s Space Research Developments in the Search for Extraterrestrial Life

In recent years, India has made remarkable progress in space exploration, driven by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO). From groundbreaking missions like Chandrayaan and Mangalyaan to upcoming interplanetary explorations, India has emerged as a strong player in the global space community. Here’s a closer look at India’s recent developments in the search for life beyond Earth, especially in the 21st century.

1. Milestones in Lunar Exploration: Chandrayaan Missions

India’s Chandrayaan missions have been instrumental in advancing our understanding of the Moon, particularly its potential to support life:

• Chandrayaan-1 (2008): This mission was India’s first lunar exploration mission, and it made a significant discovery by confirming the presence of water molecules on the Moon’s surface. The presence of water is critical, as it supports theories of habitability and future human exploration.
• Chandrayaan-2 (2019): The Chandrayaan-2 mission aimed to explore the Moon’s south pole, a region of interest due to its cold traps where water ice might be present. Although its lander experienced a crash, the orbiter continues to send valuable data, adding to our understanding of the Moon’s mineral composition and surface mapping.
• Chandrayaan-3 (2023): Building on previous missions, Chandrayaan-3 focused on a safe and successful landing on the Moon’s south pole. This mission marked a major success in lunar exploration and reinforced India’s reputation in space research, paving the way for deeper studies into the Moon’s geology and the presence of water ice.

These missions contribute indirectly to the search for life by expanding knowledge about the Moon’s resources, which can support sustainable human presence on the Moon and enable further exploration of extraterrestrial environments.

2. Exploring Mars: The Mars Orbiter Mission (Mangalyaan)

India’s Mars Orbiter Mission (MOM), or Mangalyaan (2014), was a milestone as India’s first interplanetary mission. It was designed to study the Martian surface, atmosphere, and mineral composition, as well as map methane presence, which can indicate biological activity.

MOM was a technological and budgetary success, demonstrating that ISRO could achieve sophisticated space objectives at a fraction of the cost of similar missions. The data from Mangalyaan has deepened the scientific community’s understanding of Mars and set the stage for future missions focused on habitability.

3. Expanding Horizons with Upcoming Missions

India is also preparing for more ambitious space missions that focus on interplanetary exploration and the search for life beyond Mars:

• Shukrayaan Mission: Scheduled for launch by 2025, Shukrayaan aims to explore Venus’s atmosphere and its habitability potential. Venus is of interest because of the detection of phosphine gas, a possible indicator of life, in its upper atmosphere. India’s planned Shukrayaan mission could provide deeper insights into this finding and potentially confirm or refute the possibility of life.
• Gaganyaan and Beyond: India’s Gaganyaan mission is aimed at developing human spaceflight capabilities, with potential implications for future deep space explorations. Human missions to other planets or even the Moon could aid in searching for signs of life by allowing direct collection and analysis of samples in space.

4. Collaborations and Future Outlook

India’s space sector is expanding through international collaboration, which is vital for complex space missions. ISRO is working with NASA on missions like NISAR (a satellite to monitor Earth’s ecosystem) and pursuing partnerships for Mars and Moon exploration. Such collaborations enhance scientific capabilities and support India’s goal to position itself as a leader in affordable and effective space exploration.