Major Problems of Indian Agriculture and Solutions

Agriculture is the backbone of India’s economy, employing nearly half the population and contributing significantly to GDP. However, Indian agriculture faces several challenges, ranging from outdated practices to external pressures like climate change. Addressing these issues is crucial for sustainable development.

Major Problems of Indian Agriculture

1. Low Productivity

• India’s agricultural yield per hectare is significantly lower than global standards.
• Reasons:
  • Traditional farming techniques.
  • Lack of mechanization.
  • Limited access to quality seeds and fertilizers.

2. Dependence on Monsoons

• Over 50% of India’s agricultural land is rainfed. Erratic monsoon patterns lead to droughts or floods, directly impacting crops.

3. Fragmented Landholdings

• With rising population, farms are divided into smaller plots, reducing economies of scale and profitability.
• Example: Over 86% of farmers in India are small or marginal, owning less than 2 hectares of land.

4. Post-Harvest Losses

• Inefficient storage and transportation infrastructure lead to significant losses, especially in perishable crops like fruits and vegetables.
• Fact: Nearly 20-30% of produce is wasted due to poor logistics.

5. Inadequate Credit Availability

• Farmers often rely on informal moneylenders due to limited access to institutional credit. This traps them in debt cycles.

6. Market and Pricing Issues

• Farmers often face price volatility and lack of proper marketing channels to sell their produce.
• Example: Despite bumper harvests, farmers sometimes fail to secure a fair price due to middlemen and inadequate MSP (Minimum Support Price) coverage.

7. Climate Change and Soil Degradation

• Rising temperatures, changing rainfall patterns, and soil erosion affect crop productivity.
• Excessive use of chemical fertilizers has degraded soil fertility.

8. Water Scarcity

• Overexploitation of groundwater for irrigation, especially in states like Punjab and Haryana, is unsustainable.
• Fact: Agriculture accounts for 80% of India’s freshwater usage.

Solutions to Overcome Problems

1. Adopting Modern Techniques

• Promote mechanization, precision farming, and sustainable agricultural practices.
• Use technologies like drones and sensors for monitoring crop health.

2. Improving Irrigation Facilities

• Expand micro-irrigation (drip and sprinkler systems) to reduce water wastage.
• Invest in watershed management and rainwater harvesting.

3. Land Reforms

• Encourage consolidation of fragmented landholdings into cooperative farming models for better resource utilization.

4. Strengthening Credit Support

• Expand coverage of institutional credit to reach marginal farmers.
• Simplify loan processes and provide crop insurance coverage.

5. Enhancing Storage and Logistics

• Build cold storage facilities and improve rural infrastructure to reduce post-harvest losses.
• Develop better supply chain systems to connect farmers directly with markets.

6. Boosting Market Access

• Expand e-NAM (National Agricultural Market) to bring transparency in pricing and reduce dependence on middlemen.
• Increase MSP coverage and ensure timely procurement.

7. Addressing Climate Change

• Promote crop diversification and climate-resilient crops.
• Reduce dependence on chemical fertilizers and encourage organic farming.

8. Education and Awareness

• Provide training to farmers on modern techniques, financial literacy, and government schemes.

Government Programs for Agricultural Development

1. Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana (PMFBY):

• Objective: Provides insurance against crop losses due to natural disasters.
• Impact: Reduces financial burden on farmers during adverse climatic conditions.

2. Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchai Yojana (PMKSY):

• Objective: Promotes efficient use of water resources and expands micro-irrigation coverage.
• Tagline: “Per Drop More Crop.”

3. Soil Health Card Scheme:

• Objective: Monitors soil health and promotes balanced use of fertilizers.
• Achievement: Over 23 crore soil health cards distributed by 2022.

4. e-NAM (National Agricultural Market):

• Objective: Creates a unified online market for agricultural commodities to ensure fair pricing.

5. Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana (RKVY):

• Objective: Provides financial assistance to States to invest in agriculture and allied sectors based on local needs.

6. Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY):

• Objective: Promotes organic farming and sustainable agriculture practices.

7. Operation Green:

• Objective: Stabilizes the supply and price of tomato, onion, and potato (TOP) crops.

8. Kisan Credit Card (KCC):

• Objective: Ensures timely and affordable credit to farmers for crop production and allied activities.

Illustrations

1. Water Management:
   • Example: Farmers in Gujarat benefitting from PMKSY’s micro-irrigation systems, reducing water consumption by up to 40%.
2. Crop Insurance:
   • Example: PMFBY has helped thousands of farmers in Maharashtra recover losses due to floods in 2021.
3. Market Access:
   • Farmers in Madhya Pradesh using e-NAM have seen better prices for wheat and soybean compared to traditional markets.

Conclusion

Indian agriculture is at a critical juncture, facing numerous challenges but also opportunities for growth. By addressing systemic issues through modern techniques, better infrastructure, and supportive policies, the sector can achieve sustainable development. The government’s initiatives like PMFBY, PMKSY, and e-NAM are steps in the right direction but need effective implementation and increased reach. Collaborative efforts between the Centre, States, and farmers are key to transforming Indian agriculture into a resilient and prosperous sector.

Centrally Sponsored Schemes (CSS) are programs funded and designed by the Central Government but implemented by the States. These schemes aim to address national development priorities but often lead to disagreements between the Centre and States over issues like funding patterns, implementation control, and administrative burden.

What Are Centrally Sponsored Schemes?

• Definition:
  CSS are joint initiatives where the Centre provides a significant portion of the funding, and States contribute the remaining amount.
• Examples of CSS:
  • Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS)
  • Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (PMAY)
  • Mid-Day Meal Scheme (MDMS)

Points of Contention Between Centre and States

1. Funding Patterns

• Issue:
  • States often bear a share of the funding, which becomes challenging for fiscally weaker States.
  • Frequent changes in the Centre-State funding ratio lead to unpredictability.
  • Example: In the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan, the initial funding ratio of 90:10 (Centre: State) was changed to 60:40 for most States, increasing the financial burden on States.

2. One-Size-Fits-All Approach

• Issue:
  • Many CSS have a uniform framework that may not align with the unique socio-economic conditions of different States.
  • Example: In the PM-KISAN scheme, uniform financial assistance ignores regional variations in agricultural income and needs.

3. Administrative Overlap and Bureaucratic Delays

• Issue:
  • Dual control over implementation leads to inefficiencies and delays.
  • States often have limited flexibility to adapt programs to local contexts.

4. Erosion of State Autonomy

• Issue:
  • States argue that CSS infringe on their policymaking autonomy, as many fall under subjects in the State List of the Constitution.
  • Example: Education and health are primarily State subjects, but CSS like National Health Mission (NHM) dictate policies, limiting State discretion.

5. Accountability Issues

• Issue:
  • Overlap in responsibilities between Centre and States leads to confusion over accountability.
  • Example: Delays in MGNREGS wage payments often involve blame-shifting between the Centre and States.

6. Political Misuse

• Issue:
  • The Centre sometimes uses CSS to highlight its role in development, sidelining States’ contributions.
  • Example: Many centrally funded schemes are branded with “PM” (e.g., PMAY), emphasizing the Centre’s role in public perception.

Examples Illustrating Tensions

1. Goods and Services Tax (GST) Compensation Issue:
   • While not a CSS, it highlights a similar pattern where States criticized the Centre for delays in compensation payments, causing fiscal stress.
2. Ayushman Bharat Scheme:
   • Some States argued that the scheme overlaps with their existing health programs and fails to recognize regional needs.
   • Example: West Bengal withdrew from the scheme, citing lack of autonomy and recognition of State contributions.
3. Smart Cities Mission:
   • States have pointed out that limited flexibility and delayed central funds hinder their ability to implement the program effectively.

Reforming Centrally Sponsored Schemes

Recommendations for Improvement

1. Flexibility for States:
   • Allow States to modify schemes based on local needs.
   • Example: In agriculture, States with diverse climatic conditions should have tailored assistance programs.
2. Stable Funding Patterns:
   • Ensure a predictable and equitable sharing of costs to avoid fiscal strain on States.
3. Outcome-Based Monitoring:
   • Shift focus from expenditure tracking to monitoring tangible results.
4. Strengthen Federal Dialogue:
   • Enhance cooperation between the Centre and States through institutions like the NITI Aayog.
5. Reduce Overlap:
   • Avoid duplication of programs by consolidating similar schemes.

Conclusion

Centrally Sponsored Schemes are vital for addressing national priorities, but their implementation often creates friction between the Centre and States. While CSS promote development, they must strike a balance between national objectives and regional autonomy. Reforms that provide States with greater flexibility, predictable funding, and recognition of their unique needs can help resolve these issues and improve governance.

Difference Between Constitution and Constitutionalism

Constitution:

• A constitution is a written document or a set of fundamental principles that outline the framework of government, its powers, and the rights of citizens.
• It is a static legal document, detailing the structure and functioning of the state.
• Example: The Indian Constitution is the longest written constitution in the world, containing provisions about fundamental rights, directive principles, and the distribution of power among the executive, legislature, and judiciary.

Constitutionalism:

• Constitutionalism is the practice of limiting government powers through laws, ensuring accountability, and protecting individual freedoms.
• It emphasizes the spirit of the constitution—ensuring a balance between authority and liberty.
• Example: A country may have a written constitution but lack constitutionalism if its government exercises unchecked power (e.g., in dictatorships).

In essence:

• The constitution provides the rules, while constitutionalism ensures the rules are applied to safeguard democracy and individual rights.

Doctrine of Basic Structure

Origin of the Doctrine

• The Basic Structure Doctrine was introduced by the Supreme Court of India in the Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala (1973) case.
• It asserts that certain fundamental features of the Constitution cannot be amended by Parliament, even under Article 368 (the amendment provision).

Key Features of Basic Structure Doctrine

• Ensures that the essential character of the Constitution is preserved.
• Balances the power of Parliament to amend the Constitution with the need to protect its core values.

Elements of the Basic Structure

While the Supreme Court has not provided an exhaustive list, the following are commonly considered part of the basic structure:

1. Supremacy of the Constitution
2. Rule of Law
3. Separation of Powers
4. Judicial Review
5. Federalism
6. Sovereign, Democratic, and Republican nature of the polity
7. Secularism
8. Fundamental Rights

Significance of the Basic Structure Doctrine

1. Protection Against Arbitrary Amendments:
   • Prevents Parliament from using its amending power to dilute the Constitution’s core principles.
2. Guardian of Democracy:
   • Ensures that essential democratic ideals such as judicial independence, federalism, and fundamental rights remain intact.
3. Check on Majoritarianism:
   • Safeguards minority rights and prevents authoritarian tendencies in a parliamentary majority.
4. Preservation of Individual Liberties:
   • Ensures that amendments do not undermine fundamental rights like equality, freedom, and dignity.

Criticism of the Doctrine

1. Lack of Clarity:
   • The basic structure is not clearly defined, leading to subjective interpretations by the judiciary.
2. Judicial Overreach:
   • Critics argue that the doctrine gives excessive power to the judiciary, enabling it to override constitutional amendments passed by elected representatives.
3. Conflict with Parliamentary Sovereignty:
   • Some view the doctrine as limiting the legitimate powers of Parliament to adapt the Constitution to changing times.
4. Ambiguity in Scope:
   • What constitutes the “basic structure” can vary with different judicial interpretations, leading to potential inconsistencies.

Landmark Cases Related to Basic Structure

1. Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala (1973):
   • Established the doctrine of basic structure.
   • Held that Parliament cannot alter the Constitution’s core principles.
2. Indira Gandhi v. Raj Narain (1975):
   • Struck down the 39th Constitutional Amendment, which attempted to put the election of the Prime Minister beyond judicial scrutiny, as violating the basic structure.
3. Minerva Mills v. Union of India (1980):
   • Reinforced the basic structure doctrine by striking down amendments that curtailed judicial review and diluted the balance between Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles.
4. S.R. Bommai v. Union of India (1994):
   • Declared federalism and secularism as part of the basic structure.

Illustrations

1. Protection of Democracy:
   • In Indira Gandhi’s Emergency period, attempts to curtail judicial review were blocked using the basic structure doctrine.
2. Federalism:
   • In the case of state disputes, the judiciary has upheld federalism as a basic feature, ensuring balanced power-sharing.

Conclusion

The distinction between Constitution and Constitutionalism reflects the difference between having a set of rules and ensuring that those rules are applied in a fair, democratic manner. The Basic Structure Doctrine, while not explicitly mentioned in the Constitution, has become a cornerstone of Indian democracy by preventing arbitrary amendments and protecting the Constitution’s core values.

However, its subjective interpretation and the judiciary’s dominant role call for careful balance to respect both judicial independence and parliamentary sovereignty. The doctrine underscores the importance of safeguarding democracy while allowing flexibility for constitutional evolution.

India’s political landscape has witnessed a significant rise in regional political parties, which play an increasingly vital role in shaping governance and influencing national policies. These parties cater to specific regions, communities, and local issues, and their growth has transformed the dynamics of Indian party politics.

What Are Regional Political Parties

Regional political parties primarily operate in specific states or regions and address local issues rather than national concerns. Examples include:

• DMK in Tamil Nadu.
• TMC in West Bengal.
• BJD in Odisha.
• TRS (now BRS) in Telangana.

Implications of Growing Regional Political Parties

1. Strengthening Federalism

• Regional parties advocate for state-specific interests, leading to greater decentralization of power.
• They challenge central dominance, ensuring a balance between the Union and state governments.
• Example: DMK and AIADMK have been vocal about Tamil Nadu’s rights in language policies and economic distribution.

2. Coalition Politics

• The rise of regional parties has made coalition governments more common at the national level.
• National parties often rely on regional allies to form or sustain governments.
• Example: The United Progressive Alliance (UPA) and National Democratic Alliance (NDA) coalitions include several regional parties like the Shiv Sena and JDU.

3. Focus on Local Issues

• Regional parties prioritize local concerns such as infrastructure, employment, and cultural identity, ensuring these issues gain political attention.
• Example: TRS (BRS) in Telangana campaigned on promises of state-specific development after its formation in 2014.

4. Increased Political Competition

• Regional parties challenge the dominance of national parties, leading to more competitive elections.
• This competition often results in better governance as governments aim to meet voter expectations.
• Example: In West Bengal, the TMC defeated the national party BJP in the 2021 assembly elections by emphasizing grassroots programs like Duare Sarkar (Government at Your Doorstep).

5. Rise of Identity Politics

• Regional parties often leverage caste, language, or ethnic identities to consolidate their voter base.
• While this strengthens representation for marginalized groups, it can sometimes deepen societal divides.
• Example: RJD in Bihar has historically built its base on caste identity politics.

6. Challenges to National Unity

• Excessive regionalism may lead to conflicts between states and the central government, affecting national integration.
• Example: Disputes over river water sharing between states like Karnataka and Tamil Nadu often see regional parties taking strong stands.

7. Impact on National Policies

• Regional parties influence national policy decisions by leveraging their coalition power.
• Example: TMC’s opposition to certain central policies during its time as a UPA ally led to significant policy changes or delays.

8. Governance Challenges

• Frequent coalition politics may lead to instability and compromises in decision-making.
• Example: The fall of coalition governments due to withdrawal of support by regional parties has disrupted governance in the past.

Illustrations of Regional Party Influence

1. Economic Policies:
   • States like Odisha under BJD have pushed for more mining royalties, benefiting their state economies.
2. Cultural Preservation:
   • Shiv Sena in Maharashtra promotes Marathi culture and the rights of local people.
3. Electoral Competition:
   • In states like Uttar Pradesh, the Samajwadi Party (SP) and Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP) consistently challenge national parties, ensuring a multi-party system.

Conclusion

The growth of regional political parties has reshaped Indian politics, enhancing federalism, increasing focus on local issues, and making elections more competitive. However, it also brings challenges like political instability, identity-based divisions, and policy delays at the national level.

A balanced approach, where national and regional interests coexist harmoniously, is essential for sustaining India’s democratic and federal structure. Regional parties will likely continue to play a crucial role in shaping India’s political and governance framework.