Model Answer

The Basic Structure Doctrine is a judicial innovation that limits the power of the Parliament to amend the Indian Constitution. While the term “basic structure” is not explicitly mentioned in the Constitution, it has evolved through several landmark judicial decisions over time.

Origin and Development

The doctrine was first articulated in the Kesavananda Bharati case (1973), where the Supreme Court ruled that while Parliament has the power to amend the Constitution, it cannot alter its basic structure. This ruling overruled previous judgments, such as Golak Nath (1967), which had protected Fundamental Rights from amendments. The Kesavananda case laid the foundation for the basic structure doctrine, with the Court declaring that certain elements of the Constitution cannot be altered even through amendments.

Key Landmark Cases

• Shankari Prasad (1951): The Court upheld Parliament’s power to amend the Constitution, including Fundamental Rights.
• Golak Nath (1967): The Court declared that Parliament could not amend Fundamental Rights, giving them a “transcendental and immutable” status.
• Kesavananda Bharati (1973): Introduced the basic structure doctrine, protecting fundamental features of the Constitution from amendments.
• Minerva Mills (1980): Reinforced that judicial review is part of the basic structure.
• Indira Sawhney (1992) and S.R. Bommai (1994): Further expanded the scope, incorporating values such as federalism, secularism, and social justice as essential elements of the Constitution.

Significance and Implications

• Protection of Core Values: The doctrine ensures that fundamental aspects of the Constitution, like democracy, secularism, rule of law, and judicial review, remain unaltered.
• Checks on Parliamentary Power: It curbs Parliament’s power to amend the Constitution, ensuring that amendments cannot undermine the Constitution’s core values.
• Judicial Review: The doctrine has made judicial review a critical tool for protecting the Constitution. Laws and amendments inconsistent with the basic structure can be struck down by the judiciary.

In conclusion, the basic structure doctrine safeguards the Constitution’s fundamental principles, ensuring a balance of power between Parliament and the judiciary, and preserving the democratic framework of India.

Model Answer

Definition: Ferrous minerals are metallic minerals that contain iron as a primary component. These minerals are essential for the production of steel and other industrial materials. Common examples of ferrous minerals include iron ore, manganese, and chromite, which form the backbone of the metallurgical industry, contributing to the manufacturing of steel and other products.

Importance: Ferrous minerals, especially iron ore, are crucial for India’s economy as they provide raw material for the steel industry, which is integral to infrastructure development and industrial growth.

Distribution of Iron Ore in India

India has vast reserves of iron ore, making it one of the largest producers globally. The distribution of iron ore is concentrated in certain regions, particularly in states rich in both iron ore and coal deposits.

1. Odisha-Jharkhand Belt

• Odisha: Odisha has significant iron ore deposits in the Sundergarh, Mayurbhanj, and Jhar hills. Key mines include Gurumahisani, Sulaipet, Badampahar, Kiruburu, and Bonai.
• Jharkhand: The state is home to some of India’s oldest and most important iron ore mines, such as Noamundi and Gua, located in the east and west Singhbhum districts.

2. Durg-Bastar-Chandrapur Belt

• Chhattisgarh: This region contains high-quality hematite ore. Notable mines include Bailadila in Bastar district and Dalli and Rajhara in Durg district.
• Maharashtra: The Chandrapur district, located in Maharashtra, is also part of this belt.

3. Ballari-Chitradurga-Chikkamagaluru-Tumakuru Belt (Karnataka)

• This belt has extensive iron ore reserves, with important mining areas in Ballari (Sandur-Hospet), Baba Budan hills, and Kudremukh.

4. Maharashtra-Goa Belt

• This region includes Goa and parts of Ratnagiri in Maharashtra, where lower-quality ores are mined efficiently. Chandrapur and Bhandara in Maharashtra also have notable iron ore deposits.

5. Other Regions

• Telangana: Karimnagar and Warangal districts.
• Andhra Pradesh: Kurnool, Cuddapah, and Anantapur districts.
• Tamil Nadu: Salem and Nilgiris districts.

Conclusion

India’s iron ore deposits are primarily located in the eastern, central, and southern regions, which are also rich in coal and manganese, crucial for steel production. This strategic location supports India’s thriving steel industry. The iron ore found in these regions is primarily hematite and magnetite, both of which are in high demand internationally.

Model Answer

Diastrophism refers to the endogenic (internal) processes that result in the movement, elevation, or building up of portions of the Earth’s crust. It encompasses all processes that modify the configuration of the Earth’s surface through forces emanating from within the Earth. These movements occur due to the energy generated primarily from radioactivity, rotational and tidal friction, and primordial heat from the Earth’s origin. Here’s a detailed breakdown of diastrophism and its various processes:

1. Definition and Nature of Diastrophism

• Endogenic Process: Diastrophism is an endogenic process, meaning it originates from within the Earth’s interior. The internal forces responsible for diastrophic movements include heat, pressure, and tectonic stresses resulting from the dynamics of the Earth’s mantle and core.
• Movement and Elevation: The process can move, elevate, or build up portions of the Earth’s crust, contributing to the continuous transformation of the Earth’s surface.
• Energy Sources: The energy for diastrophic movements comes from radioactivity within the Earth, rotational and tidal friction, and primordial heat from the Earth’s formation. These forces generate sufficient energy to cause the movement of tectonic plates and the deformation of the Earth’s crust.

2. Types of Diastrophic Movements

Orogenic Processes

• Mountain Building: Orogenic processes are associated with mountain building through severe folding. This type of diastrophic movement occurs when tectonic plates collide, separate, or slide along each other, leading to the formation of long and narrow belts of folded crust. Examples of ongoing orogenic processes include the Mediterranean ridge, Andean orogeny, and the Himalayan orogeny.
• Plate Interaction: The interaction between tectonic plates through collision or convergence results in the uplift and deformation of the Earth’s crust, forming mountain ranges.

Epeirogenic Processes

• Uplift and Warping: These processes involve the uplift or warping of large parts of the Earth’s crust in a strictly vertical direction. Unlike horizontal movements, epeirogenic processes result in the elevation of large, relatively flat regions of the Earth’s surface, forming gentle arches and structural basins.
• Uniform Uplift: This type of movement occurs more uniformly across large areas, rather than in narrow belts like in orogenic processes. Examples of epeirogenic movement include the uplift of continents like North America.

Plate Tectonics

• Horizontal Movement: Plate tectonics involves the horizontal movement of the Earth’s lithosphere, which is divided into major, minor, and micro tectonic plates. The current physical map of the world, with the distribution of continents and oceans, is the result of the ongoing process of plate tectonics.
• Tectonic Interactions: The movements of these plates, caused by convection currents in the mantle, result in the opening of oceans, mountain building, and the creation of structural basins. This has led to the continuous reshaping of the Earth’s surface over geological time.

Earthquakes

• Minor Movements: Earthquakes are a result of relatively local minor movements caused by the release of accumulated stress within the Earth’s crust. This stress can arise due to folding, faulting, or other physical changes within the Earth.
• Seismic Waves: When this stress is relieved through weak zones on the Earth’s surface, it releases kinetic energy in the form of seismic waves. These waves can cause uplift or subsidence in coastal areas, further altering the surface of the Earth.

3. Impact of Diastrophic Movements

• Faulting and Fracturing: The processes of orogeny, epeirogeny, earthquakes, and plate tectonics often result in faulting and fracturing of the crust, which can create new geological features and alter existing landforms.
• Changes in Pressure, Volume, and Temperature (PVT): These movements induce changes in pressure, volume, and temperature, which in turn can lead to the metamorphism of rocks. This metamorphic process contributes to the creation of new rock types and geological features, influencing the landscape of the Earth over time.

Conclusion

Diastrophism represents a dynamic force originating from within the Earth that continuously reshapes the surface. Through the interaction of orogenic processes, epeirogenic movements, plate tectonics, and earthquakes, diastrophic forces contribute to the ever-changing configuration of the Earth’s crust, leading to the formation of mountains, basins, and other landforms.

Model Answer

Volcanoes are distributed across the globe in distinct patterns, typically along tectonic plate boundaries where the Earth’s crust is weaker or where seismic activity is frequent. Most volcanoes occur along coastal mountain ranges, offshore islands, and oceanic regions, with few located in continental interiors.

Main Volcanic Belts

1. Circum-Pacific Belt (Ring of Fire)
   • The most prominent volcanic zone, located along the Pacific Ocean’s coasts.
   • Contains 75% of the world’s potentially active volcanoes.
   • Examples: Cotopaxi (Andes), Mount Fuji (Japan), and Mount St. Helens (USA).
   • This region also sees about 90% of global earthquakes.
2. Mid-Continental Belt
   • Includes volcanoes in the Mediterranean and Alpine regions.
   • Caused by the collision and convergence of tectonic plates, such as the Eurasian and African plates.
   • Examples: Stromboli, Vesuvius, and Etna.
3. Mid-Atlantic Belt
   • Located along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, a divergent plate boundary.
   • Primarily consists of fissure eruptions.
   • Iceland is the most active area in this region.

Why Volcanoes Are Concentrated Along the Pacific Ring of Fire

The Ring of Fire is a major zone of volcanic activity due to several key factors:

1. Tectonic Plate Boundaries: The Ring of Fire is situated along multiple tectonic plate boundaries, including the Pacific, Philippine, and Juan de Fuca plates. The interactions between these plates cause frequent seismic activity and volcanic eruptions.
2. Subduction Zones: Much of the Ring of Fire features convergent plate boundaries where one plate is subducted beneath another. As plates move and rock is subducted, it melts into magma, which rises to the surface and causes volcanic eruptions. An example of this is the January 2022 eruption in Tonga, where the Pacific plate was subducted beneath the Indo-Australian plate.
3. Magma Formation: The movement of tectonic plates in the Ring of Fire creates the conditions necessary for magma to rise close to the Earth’s surface, promoting continuous volcanic activity.

These geological conditions make the Ring of Fire one of the most volcanically active regions on Earth.

Model Answer

Tropical cyclones require specific conditions to form and intensify. These conditions are:

1. Warm Sea Surface: The sea surface must be at least 27°C to provide the necessary heat for the formation of these storms.
2. Moist Air: A large sea surface area provides a constant supply of moist air, essential for cloud formation.
3. Coriolis Force: The Coriolis effect is needed to initiate and maintain the spiral motion of the cyclone, which occurs in an anticlockwise direction in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere.
4. Low-Pressure Area: A pre-existing low-pressure area is needed to attract moist air, creating the conditions for a cyclone.
5. Minimal Vertical Wind Shear: Little variation in wind speed and direction at different heights is required to maintain a stable, rotating system.
6. Upper-Level Divergence: Divergence of air at higher altitudes ensures the continued movement of air away from the center, helping to sustain the low-pressure system at the surface.

Differences Between Tropical and Temperate Cyclones

Tropical cyclones are influenced by warm ocean conditions, whereas temperate cyclones are more complex, forming due to temperature contrasts in the atmosphere and a more dynamic air mass movement.