Model Answer

Ancient India made remarkable contributions to both Mathematics and Science, some of which were ahead of their time and laid the foundation for further advancements.

Mathematics

1. Baudhayan (1st Millennium BC): Baudhayan’s Sulva-Sutra contained the formula for calculating the area of a triangle, a concept later known as the Pythagorean theorem. It also included early approximations of pi and the square root of two.
2. Aryabhata (5th Century CE): Aryabhata’s work, Aryabhatiya, provided an accurate value of pi and demonstrated the concept of zero as both a numeral and a symbol. He also proposed the Earth’s rotation on its axis and explained eclipses scientifically.
3. Brahmagupta (7th Century CE): Brahmagupta introduced the use of zero in arithmetic and negative numbers. He also laid down rules for operations involving zero and negative numbers, which became a foundation of modern arithmetic.
4. Bhaskaracharya (12th Century CE): In his Siddanta Shiromani, Bhaskara introduced the Chakrawat or Cyclic Method to solve algebraic equations, a technique later rediscovered by European mathematicians.
5. Mahaviracharya (9th Century CE): He wrote Ganit Sara Sangraha, one of the earliest texts on arithmetic. His work included methods to calculate the least common multiple (LCM), long before it became known in the West.

Science

1. Kanad (6th Century BCE): Kanad, the founder of the Vaisheshika school, proposed the atomic theory, stating that the universe is composed of indivisible particles called “kanas” or atoms.
2. Varahamihira (6th Century CE): A pioneer in meteorology, Varahamihira proposed the earthquake cloud theory in his Brihat Samhita, linking earthquakes to unusual atmospheric and animal behaviors.
3. Nagarjuna (10th Century CE): A skilled alchemist, Nagarjuna’s work in metallurgy involved the extraction of precious metals and the creation of gold-like substances for jewelry.
4. Susruta (700 BCE): Known as the father of surgery, Susruta wrote Susruta Samhita, describing surgical procedures like rhinoplasty and cataract removal and cataloging over 1,100 diseases.
5. Charaka (2nd Century CE): Charaka, a prominent figure in Ayurvedic medicine, wrote Charak Samhita, detailing treatments for various diseases and introducing concepts that hinted at genetic inheritance.

These contributions, though not always well-documented, highlight India’s advanced understanding of mathematics and science long before their Western counterparts.

Model Answer

In India, public debt refers to the total liabilities of the Union government that must be serviced through the Consolidated Fund of India. It may also encompass the combined liabilities of central and state governments. Key sources of public debt include dated government securities (G-Secs), treasury bills, external assistance, and short-term borrowings.

Concerns Over High Public Debt

1. Rising Public Debt in India
   • The Union government’s debt surged from 51.8% of GDP in 2011-12 to 58.8% in 2020-21, the highest in 14 years. This rapid increase raises alarm due to its broader economic implications.
2. Mounting Interest Payments
   • A growing debt portfolio leads to higher interest payments, reducing fiscal flexibility and increasing pressure on public finances.
3. Sovereign Debt Crisis Risk
   • High debt levels coupled with rising interest rates make refinancing expensive. Prolonged reliance on debt may lead to a sovereign debt crisis, similar to the European debt crisis.
4. Inflationary Pressure
   • Increased government borrowing can spur aggregate demand, resulting in demand-pull inflation.
5. Crowding-Out Effect
   • Excessive public debt raises interest rates, discouraging private investment, and slowing GDP growth over the long term.
6. Impact on Future Generations
   • Borrowing transfers the repayment burden, often in the form of higher taxes, to future generations.
7. Debt Sustainability
   • High primary deficits and adverse interest rate-growth dynamics cast doubts on India’s debt sustainability.
8. Limited Fiscal Space
   • A high fiscal deficit restricts the government’s ability to absorb economic shocks without risking credit downgrades.
9. Impact on Credit Ratings
   • Excessive debt can trigger lower credit ratings, increasing borrowing costs and reducing investor confidence.

Conclusion

While public debt is essential for driving growth, particularly in an emerging economy like India, maintaining an optimal debt level is critical to ensuring long-term economic stability.

Model Answer

Importance of National Income Accounting

National Income Accounting (NIA) plays a critical role in assessing the economic performance of a country. It provides valuable insights into the economic health and development of a nation. Here’s a breakdown of its significance:

• International Comparison: NIA enables comparisons between countries by measuring growth rates and standard of living, which helps in understanding the relative performance of different economies.
• Business Decisions: By indicating the contribution of various sectors, it aids businesses in planning production, investments, and resource allocation for future growth.
• Policy Formulation: NIA helps the government in allocating resources effectively, addressing income disparities, and fostering balanced economic development.
• Policy Evaluation: It assists in evaluating the outcomes of governmental policies, such as those related to growth and income distribution, enabling better decision-making for future policies.
• Annual Budget: It influences the design of the government’s fiscal policies, including taxation and borrowing strategies, to stabilize income and employment levels.

Factors Influencing a Country’s GDP

Several factors contribute to a country’s GDP, each affecting its economic output in distinct ways:

• Natural Resources: The availability of resources such as coal, iron, and timber significantly impacts GDP by providing raw materials for industrial activities (Source: NIA).
• Capital: Investment in infrastructure, machinery, and technologies fuels production. Investment levels are influenced by profitability, political stability, and market conditions.
• Labor and Entrepreneurship: The quality of human capital and entrepreneurial ability determines productivity. Education, training, and manpower planning enhance economic output (Source: NIA).
• Technology: Technological advancements drive production efficiency, particularly in resource-scarce countries. Innovation plays a crucial role in boosting GDP (Source: NIA).
• Government: Government policies can stimulate economic growth by creating a favorable business environment, ensuring law and order, and promoting investments.
• Political Stability: Stable political conditions encourage investment, as businesses thrive in environments free of social unrest or conflict (Source: NIA).

Despite its usefulness, GDP is criticized for not reflecting issues like inequality or the conditions of the poor, which are captured by other indices such as the Human Development Index (HDI).

Model Answer

Instruments of Monetary Policy Available to the RBI

The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) employs quantitative and qualitative tools to regulate the economy’s money supply:

A. Quantitative Tools

1. Legal Reserve Ratio (SLR and CRR):
   • Commercial banks must maintain a portion of their reserves as SLR and CRR with the RBI, influencing their capacity to lend money.
   • E.g., an increase in CRR reduces the funds available for lending.
2. Repo and Reverse Repo Rates:
   • Repo rate: The rate at which banks borrow funds from the RBI by selling securities.
   • Reverse repo rate: The rate at which banks park surplus funds with the RBI.
   • These rates control liquidity and inflation.
3. Open Market Operations (OMO):
   • RBI buys/sells government securities to inject or absorb liquidity from the system.
   • Example: Selling securities curbs excess liquidity during inflation.
4. Market Stabilisation Scheme (MSS):
   • Utilized to absorb surplus capital inflows through short-term securities like treasury bills.

B. Qualitative Tools

1. Rationing of Credit: Limits credit to specific sectors.
2. Change in Marginal Requirements: Adjusts loan sizes for different sectors.
3. Moral Suasion: Persuades banks to align lending with economic goals without enforcing strict measures.

RBI as a Banker

To Commercial Banks:

• Liquidity Support:
  • Through tools like Liquidity Adjustment Facility (LAF) and Marginal Standing Facility (MSF), the RBI ensures banks meet short-term fund requirements.
• Currency Issuance:
  • The RBI is the sole issuer of legal tender in India.

To the Government:

• Debt Management:
  • The RBI manages borrowing programs, including floating government loans.
• Remittance and Banking:
  • Manages all banking transactions, including exchange and remittances.
• Ways and Means Advances (WMA):
  • Provides short-term advances to governments to address temporary mismatches in cash flows.

Conclusion

The RBI, through its monetary tools, ensures financial stability, economic growth, and liquidity management, while its role as a banker fosters stability in banking and government operations. Source: RBI Act, 1934; Monetary Policy Framework.

Model Answer

The Great Depression and Its Global Impact

The Great Depression, which began in 1929 and lasted until the mid-1930s, was a period of severe global economic downturn, characterized by steep declines in production, trade, employment, and incomes. While the exact timing and severity of the depression varied from country to country, its effects were widespread. Several factors played a role in triggering the Great Depression, and its impact was not confined to the United States but quickly spread worldwide, including to India.

Causes of the Great Depression

One of the key factors that triggered the depression was the stock market crash of 1929. The stock market in New York experienced a massive collapse due to speculative investments and a lack of regulatory measures. This led to a financial crisis in the U.S., one of the largest in its history. Another major factor was banking panics and monetary contraction. The withdrawal of U.S. loans led to economic instability in countries across the globe, especially in Europe, where major banks failed and currencies like the British pound sterling collapsed. Additionally, oversupply and overproduction in agriculture, particularly in the U.S., caused agricultural prices to plummet. The subsequent decrease in income forced farmers to produce more, worsening the market glut and further driving down prices. The low demand and high unemployment further compounded the crisis, as consumers cut spending, and companies reduced production, leading to widespread job losses.

Impact on India

The Great Depression’s effects were not limited to the Western world; India too felt its impact. Indian trade was immediately affected as exports and imports nearly halved between 1928 and 1934. As international prices crashed, prices within India also fell. Peasants and farmers were hit the hardest, as agricultural prices plummeted while the colonial government refused to reduce revenue demands. This resulted in rising indebtedness, with many peasants mortgaging land or selling valuable assets to cover their expenses. On the other hand, urban India experienced a milder impact, as falling prices made goods more affordable for those with fixed incomes, such as salaried employees and landowners.

Global Recovery Efforts

In response to the depression, many countries abandoned the gold standard, devalued their currencies, or increased their money supply to stimulate recovery. In the U.S., President Roosevelt’s New Deal programs, including social welfare initiatives and defense spending during World War II, played a significant role in boosting the economy and helping it recover.

In conclusion, the Great Depression was a global crisis with multiple causes, and its effects reverberated across nations, including India, highlighting the interconnectedness of the world’s economies during this turbulent period.