Model Answer

The improper disposal of Construction and Demolition (C&D) waste, particularly in open drains and water channels, leads to blockages during heavy rains, exacerbating urban flooding. For example, the 2015 Chennai floods were worsened by the obstruction of stormwater drains caused by discarded C&D debris (Building Material Promotion Council).

Hydrological Disruption and Ecological Damage

When C&D waste is discarded in sensitive areas like wetlands, riverbeds, or water channels, it disrupts the natural hydrological balance and damages aquatic ecosystems. The Yamuna River in Delhi has experienced significant ecological degradation due to C&D waste dumping in its riverbed (Source: BMPC).

Soil and Water Pollution

C&D waste often releases leachate and fine chemical particles, contaminating soil and groundwater. These pollutants degrade soil quality and contribute to land and water pollution, posing long-term environmental risks.

Fugitive Dust Pollution

C&D activities contribute significantly to fugitive dust pollution, which contains harmful substances such as silica, asbestos, and lead. In Delhi, the construction sector is a major contributor to PM2.5 pollution, which worsens air quality and can lead to smog formation .

Landfill Overload

The increasing amount of C&D waste places pressure on landfills, leading to the creation of more disposal sites and contributing to the depletion of scarce land resources.

Model Answer

Ethnic and indigenous communities in India, comprising around 68 million people, play a pivotal role in the conservation of biodiversity. Living in proximity to forests, they have developed sustainable practices that help preserve the natural environment over generations.

1. Cultural and Religious Integration Many tribal communities integrate conservation into their cultural beliefs, often treating certain plants or animals as sacred. For example, the Gond tribe in the Western Ghats protects sacred groves of the mango tree (Mangifera Indica) due to their belief in the tree being the abode of deities. This cultural reverence helps maintain biodiversity by preventing the destruction of these ecosystems.

2. Use of Traditional Knowledge Indigenous communities possess traditional ecological knowledge, passed down through generations. This knowledge enables them to utilize a wide range of plant species without overexploiting them. For example, tribes in southern India use up to 1,500 plant species, compared to the 100-150 species typically relied upon by others. This diversity helps prevent overharvesting of any single species and promotes ecosystem balance.

3. Sustainable Practices in Agriculture Tribal communities in India follow sustainable agricultural practices that ensure species conservation. For instance, the Kadars in Tamil Nadu selectively harvest mature yam plants, and the Gaddi and Gujjar tribes practice controlled grazing to prevent the overgrowth of wild grasses. These methods contribute to maintaining the health of local ecosystems.

4. Species-Specific Conservation Some indigenous tribes avoid hunting certain species they consider sacred. The Adi tribe in Arunachal Pradesh, for example, does not hunt tigers, sparrows, or pangolins, believing these creatures bring good fortune. Such species-specific taboos contribute to species preservation.

5. Environmental Movements and Collective Responsibility Indigenous communities have initiated numerous environmental movements to protect ecosystems, such as the Bishnoi movement in Rajasthan and the Jungle Bachao Andolan in Bihar. Furthermore, they practice collective responsibility by ensuring that saplings are not destroyed and only necessary resources are collected from nature.

6. Collaboration with Government Many tribal communities collaborate with governmental bodies and NGOs in conservation efforts. The Singchung Bagun Village Community Reserve in Arunachal Pradesh, for instance, was created to protect a rare bird species through a joint effort between the Bagun tribe, researchers, and the forest department.

In conclusion, ethnic and indigenous communities have developed an in-depth understanding of local ecosystems, contributing significantly to the conservation of biodiversity in India. Recognizing their vital role and adopting a rights-based approach can greatly enhance India’s conservation efforts.

Model Answer

Challenges Faced by the Sugar Industry in India

1. Low Productivity:
   Despite India having the largest area under sugarcane cultivation, the yield per hectare is very low (88 metric tons per hectare), which hampers overall sugar production and the supply to mill.
2. Price Fluctuations:
   Sugar prices fluctuate due to seasonal demand, varying sugarcane production caused by climate change, and other factors. These fluctuations not only impact the industry but also lead to uncertainty for consumers.
3. Low Profitability:
   Small mills, outdated production technologies, and heavy excise duties contribute to the high cost of sugar production, leading to reduced profitability.
4. Government Regulation:
   The entire sugar value chain, including sugarcane procurement prices, distribution, export quotas, and ethanol pricing, is heavily regulated by the government. This regulation prevents the industry from benefiting from global price rise.

Can Ethanol Demand Contribute to Sustainability?

1. Structural Shift in the Sugar Sector:
   Ethanol blending offers a structural shift by allowing sugar mills to flexibly move between sugar and ethanol production, smoothing out the cyclicality caused by fluctuating sugar production cycles.
2. Year-Round Operations:
   Focusing on ethanol production allows sugar factories to operate throughout the year, as the government incentivizes the use of various feedstocks. This can help sustain the livelihoods of sugarcane farmers and mill workers.
3. Price Stabilization:
   By diverting surplus sugarcane into ethanol production, India can manage excess sugar production, helping stabilize sugar prices.
4. Farmer Benefits:
   Ethanol production leads to faster payment realization for farmers, as ethanol sales provide quicker returns compared to sugar sales.
5. Feedstock Diversification:
   The demand for new feedstocks like rice, maize, and jowar can benefit states such as Bihar, a major maize producer.

In conclusion, while ethanol demand can provide significant benefits to the sugar industry, it is crucial to balance the needs of the sugar industry with food security concerns.

Model Answer

The global semiconductor supply chain is highly interdependent and concentrated, with production dominated by a few large players. This structure has evolved over decades, bringing innovation and cost savings, but also creating vulnerabilities.

Market Concentration: A handful of companies control more than 50% of the global semiconductor market. Companies such as Samsung, Intel, and Qualcomm are major players in chip production, making the supply chain dependent on a few firms. This concentration limits competition and increases the risk of disruption if any of these companies face operational challenges.

Geographical Division: Different countries and regions specialize in distinct parts of the semiconductor supply chain, contributing to global interdependence. For instance:

• The USA and Germany are the leading exporters of raw materials used in semiconductor manufacturing.
• Taiwan and South Korea dominate the production of chips, with companies like TSMC (Taiwan) and Samsung (South Korea) leading the way.
• China is the largest consumer of semiconductors for its electronics, creating further dependencies on global production.

Collaboration in R&D: The semiconductor industry is one of the most research and development-intensive sectors. Major firms often collaborate to drive innovation. For example, ASML, Intel, Samsung, and TSMC teamed up to develop extreme ultraviolet (EUV) lithography, a technology crucial for producing advanced chips.

Risks and Vulnerabilities in the Semiconductor Supply Chain

Several risks and vulnerabilities stem from the interdependence and concentration of the semiconductor supply chain.

Natural Disasters: The geographic concentration of manufacturing in regions like Taiwan and the USA exposes the supply chain to disruptions caused by natural disasters. For example, in 2021, a severe winter storm in the USA and a drought in Taiwan led to significant supply shortages.

Geopolitical Tensions: Countries with strategic control over semiconductor technologies may impose export controls, impacting global access. In 2023, the US, Japan, and the Netherlands imposed restrictions on semiconductor equipment exports to China, raising concerns over supply chain stability.

Global Pandemics: The COVID-19 pandemic highlighted how pandemics can disrupt both supply and demand in the semiconductor industry. Factory shutdowns and surges in demand for electronic devices created significant supply shortages.

Conclusion

While the specialized and concentrated semiconductor supply chain has delivered substantial value, it also presents risks that need to be managed through policies that balance the benefits of scale with resilience to disruptions. The vulnerabilities, such as natural disasters, geopolitical tensions, and pandemics, must be addressed to ensure continued stability and growth in this critical industry.

Model Answer

India has recently discovered significant lithium reserves, particularly in the Jammu and Kashmir (J&K) region, where the Geological Survey of India (GSI) has identified an “inferred” resource of 5.9 million tonnes. Other exploration projects have been carried out across various states including Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Himachal Pradesh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Meghalaya, Karnataka, and Rajasthan. The GSI has also undertaken five additional projects in Arunachal Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, and Rajasthan to explore lithium and its associated minerals.

Challenges in Lithium Extraction

1. Inferred Resources: Most of the lithium reserves discovered so far are at the G3 (prospecting) level, meaning their commercial viability has not yet been confirmed. Further exploration is needed before large-scale mining can commence.
2. Geopolitical Issues: Extracting lithium in politically sensitive regions like J&K and the North-East poses challenges related to land acquisition, security concerns, and regional stability, which can delay or complicate mining operations.
3. Lack of Infrastructure: India lacks the necessary infrastructure, including advanced mining facilities, processing plants, and transportation networks, to extract and process lithium efficiently.
4. High Costs: The cost of lithium extraction is significant, ranging between $2500-3000 per tonne, excluding capital investments. In addition, mining operations often require considerable energy inputs and specialized technologies, making it an expensive venture.
5. Regulatory and Environmental Challenges: The regulatory framework for lithium mining is complex and slow, which discourages private investment. Furthermore, mining practices such as open-pit extraction can cause environmental damage, including soil degradation and water contamination, alongside carbon emissions during production.

Lithium’s Role in India’s Transition to Renewable Energy

• Electric Vehicles (EVs): Lithium-ion batteries are essential for EV production, which aligns with India’s goal of achieving 30% EV penetration by 2030. Lithium’s role in battery technology makes it crucial for reducing the nation’s carbon footprint.
• Energy Storage: Lithium-ion batteries enhance energy storage efficiency, vital for renewable energy systems. These batteries can store excess energy generated from solar or wind during low-demand periods and release it when demand spikes.
• Grid Stability: Lithium-based storage solutions improve grid stability by balancing energy supply and demand, further enabling a smooth transition to renewable energy sources like solar and wind.
• Reduction in Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Lithium is integral to the production of EVs, solar panels, and wind turbines, all of which help reduce GHG emissions and contribute to India’s net-zero emissions target by 2070.

To fully capitalize on lithium’s potential, the Indian government should streamline the regulatory process, invest in mining infrastructure, and explore international partnerships, such as with Australia, to gain expertise in lithium extraction.