The economic and social disparities in Bihar stem from a range of historical, geographical, socio-political, and policy-related factors. Key causes include:

1. Historical Neglect and Political Instability : Post-independence, Bihar received limited attention in terms of industrial investment and policy support, contributing to a lag in economic growth. Frequent political instability and poor governance further weakened development efforts.

1. Land Fragmentation and Agriculture Dependency : Bihar’s economy has traditionally depended on agriculture, with fragmented landholdings and outdated farming practices. Low agricultural productivity and limited access to irrigation, credit, and modern technology have hindered rural incomes.

1. Poor Infrastructure and Industrial Backwardness : Lack of infrastructure, including roads, electricity, and healthcare facilities, has limited industrial growth. This, coupled with inadequate policies to attract private investment, has left Bihar industrially backward.

1. High Population Growth and Low Literacy Rates : With a high population density and literacy rates below the national average, Bihar faces considerable pressure on its resources. Limited educational and skill development opportunities further constrain employment and economic mobility.

1. Social Inequality and Caste-based Discrimination : Social stratification, including caste-based discrimination, restricts access to resources and opportunities for marginalized groups, perpetuating disparities.

Government Measures to Reduce Inequalities and Their Evaluation:

1. Bihar Industrial Investment Promotion Policy (BIIPP) :

–  Objective : To boost industrialization, attract investments, and create jobs.

–  Evaluation : While some progress has been made in establishing industrial clusters, industrial development remains limited, and job creation has not been sufficient to meet the growing demand.

1. Mukhya Mantri Kanya Utthan Yojana :

–  Objective : To promote female education and reduce gender disparities by providing financial assistance to girls at different stages of their education.

–  Evaluation : This initiative has contributed to increased female enrollment and improved gender equity in education, though dropout rates remain high due to socioeconomic factors.

1. Aspirational Districts Programme :

–  Objective : A central government initiative, including districts in Bihar, aimed at improving social indicators like health, education, and sanitation in the most underdeveloped areas.

–  Evaluation : While the program has brought improvements in certain social indicators, its impact has been uneven across districts, and many areas still lack adequate healthcare and educational facilities.

1. Rural Development Schemes (MNREGA, PMAY) :

–  Objective : MNREGA provides employment to rural households, while Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (PMAY) provides affordable housing.

–  Evaluation : MNREGA has provided some income stability to rural populations, but delays in wage payments and limited scope for skill development reduce its effectiveness. PMAY has helped in housing access but has not fully addressed the quality of rural infrastructure.

1. Skill Development and Employment Programs :

–  Objective : Programs like the Kushal Yuva Program aim to provide skill training to youth.

–  Evaluation : While these initiatives have helped improve skills, the lack of matching employment opportunities within the state has led to high out-migration in search of jobs.

Conclusion:

The government’s efforts have yielded incremental progress in improving access to education, healthcare, and basic infrastructure. However, the deep-rooted structural issues require more comprehensive, sustained, and inclusive policy interventions. Strategies must include further investment in education, healthcare, skill development, and infrastructure, alongside effective implementation of social welfare programs. Only by addressing both economic and social inequalities can Bihar hope to bridge its development gap with other states.

The 1991 economic reforms  marked a pivotal structural transformation of the Indian economy, driven by a severe Balance of Payments (BoP) crisis and rising inflation. Faced with dwindling foreign reserves, India adopted policies to liberalize, privatize, and globalize its economy, fundamentally reshaping its economic landscape.

Liberalization  involved major deregulation measures. The government removed licensing requirements across most industries, reserving only sensitive sectors like atomic energy for public ownership. This also included relaxing the Monopolies and Restrictive Trade Practices (MRTP) Act to foster competition and protect consumers. Capital market liberalization empowered companies to issue shares and debentures without prior government consent, with the Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) ensuring fair practices. India also adopted a flexible exchange rate, making the rupee market-determined and fully convertible for trade, enhancing foreign exchange stability.

Privatization  saw significant disinvestment in public sector undertakings (PSUs) to improve efficiency, financial discipline, and managerial practices. This modernization effort aimed to enhance the competitiveness of PSUs in a market-driven environment.

Globalization  integrated India with global markets, attracting foreign direct investment (FDI) and boosting the outsourcing sector. Business process outsourcing (BPO) became a major employment generator, propelling India’s GDP growth to an average of 6-7% annually.

Conclusion : The reforms marked India’s shift from a License-Permit-Quota regime to a market-oriented economy, spurring long-term economic growth, enhanced efficiency, and job creation across sectors.

Relevant Facts:

–  Balance of Payments Crisis : The 1991 crisis saw foreign reserves depleted to just a few weeks’ worth of imports, prompting urgent reforms (Source: Reserve Bank of India).

–  FDI Inflows : Post-reforms, foreign direct investment rose substantially, with annual inflows reaching around $40 billion in recent years (Source: Department for Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade).

–  GDP Growth Rates : Following the reforms, India’s average GDP growth rate increased to about 6-7% annually, up from the pre-reform rate of 3-4% (Source: World Bank).

–  Impact on Employment : Liberalization and globalization created millions of jobs, particularly in the services sector, such as BPOs (Source: National Sample Survey Office).

Management Roles by Henry Mintzberg

Henry Mintzberg has categorized the multifaceted roles of managers into three essential dimensions: interpersonal, informational, and decisional roles. These classifications serve as a valuable framework for comprehending the wide-ranging tasks and responsibilities inherent in managerial positions.

1. Interpersonal Roles

These roles revolve around a manager’s interactions and relationships, both within and beyond the organization. Within this category, managers undertake three primary roles:

• Figurehead: Managers serve as symbolic leaders, representing their organization through ceremonial duties and the embodiment of its values.
• Leader: Managers assume the vital responsibility of guiding and motivating their teams, making pivotal decisions, and providing support to their staff.
• Liaison: Managers establish and nurture networks and relationships, fostering connections within and outside their organization to gather crucial information and access valuable resources.

2. Informational Roles

Within this sphere, managers act as conduits of information, adept at collecting, processing, and disseminating vital data that facilitates informed decision-making. This category encompasses three primary informational roles:

• Monitor: Managers diligently observe their environment, staying attuned to internal and external developments that may impact their organization.
• Disseminator: Managers share pertinent information with their teams and other stakeholders, ensuring that everyone possesses the essential knowledge required for their roles.
• Spokesperson: Managers represent their organization by communicating its goals, policies, and actions to external parties, such as the media, government entities, and the public.

3. Decisional Roles

In this domain, managers engage in the critical process of making choices and resolving issues within the organization. Four primary decisional roles encompass this dimension:

• Entrepreneur: Managers identify opportunities and champion innovative projects or improvements within their organization.
• Disturbance Handler: When conflicts or crises emerge, managers adeptly address them to maintain organizational stability and harmony.
• Resource Allocator: Managers allocate resources, including budgets, time, and personnel, strategically to various projects and initiatives, aligning them with organizational objectives.
• Negotiator: Managers skillfully navigate negotiations, whether internally, with employees or departments, or externally, with other organizations or stakeholders, to secure agreements and resolve conflicts.

In 19th-century India, social vices such as sati, child marriage, casteism, and female infanticide were widespread, especially amid British colonial rule, which both exploited and exposed the societal inequities. Social reformers like Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Swami Dayananda Saraswati, Jyotirao Phule, and others courageously challenged these practices and worked toward creating a more just society.

Role of Social Reformers

1. Raja Ram Mohan Roy: Known as the “Father of the Indian Renaissance,” he founded the Atmiya Sabha in 1815 and the Brahmo Samaj in 1828. He fought against polytheism, idol worship, casteism, and particularly the practice of sati, a ritual in which widows were forced to self-immolate on their husband’s funeral pyre. His efforts led to the Abolition of Sati Act in 1829, a significant legal achievement under British governance that banned this inhumane practice. Roy emphasized using reason and conscience over blind adherence to scriptures and worked to promote women’s rights and social equality.

2. Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar: A prominent reformer for women’s rights, Vidyasagar focused on widow remarriage and women’s education. His advocacy led to the passing of the Widow Remarriage Act in 1856, which legally permitted Hindu widows to remarry, challenging deep-seated traditions. He also fought against child marriage and polygamy, emphasizing the importance of education as a means to empower women and elevate their status in society.

3. Swami Dayananda Saraswati: Founder of the Arya Samaj in 1875, he opposed caste-based discrimination, untouchability, and idol worship, advocating instead for a casteless, egalitarian society based on Vedic teachings. He initiated the Shuddhi movement to “purify” Hinduism, aiming to bring marginalized individuals back into the fold of a reformed Hindu community, free from superstitions and oppression.

4. Jyotirao Phule: A reformer from Maharashtra, Phule fought against Brahmanical supremacy and caste oppression, establishing India’s first school for girls in 1848. In 1873, he founded the Satyashodhak Samaj, an organization dedicated to social equality and anti-caste efforts. He championed women’s education and empowerment, challenging upper-caste dominance and advocating for the rights of lower-caste communities.

5. Sree Narayana Guru: A reformer from Kerala, Guru condemned casteism and promoted interfaith harmony and equality. Through his organization Dharma Paripalana (founded in 1922), he discouraged superstitious practices, such as animal sacrifice, advocating for self-reform through education and spiritual enlightenment. His teachings emphasized unity and equality, fostering a more inclusive social outlook.

6. Mahadev Govind Ranade: A reformer and judge, Ranade advocated for social and economic reforms, including the upliftment of women, eradication of child marriage, and rights for widows. As a co-founder of the Indian National Social Conference in 1887, he addressed issues related to caste discrimination, women’s rights, and educational reform, working alongside others to bring about gradual change through legislative measures.

Broader Social Context

During this period, British colonial rule, with its complex impact on Indian society, both impeded and aided reform efforts. While colonial administrators exploited social divisions, they also enacted reform legislation in response to Indian social reformers’ persistent efforts. The British, seeing themselves as modernizers, occasionally backed reforms that Indian leaders advocated for, partly to justify their rule and partly to impose what they saw as “civilizing” influences on Indian society.

Impact of Reform Movements

The social reform movements of the 19th century led to both legal and cultural shifts:

– Legislative Changes: The Abolition of Sati Act in 1829 and the Widow Remarriage Act in 1856 were monumental steps, providing legal backing to the reformers’ ideals. These laws reduced, though did not completely eradicate, practices that targeted women and marginalized groups.
– Shift in Social Norms: Reformers’ advocacy for women’s rights led to a gradual shift in society’s view of women’s education, remarriage, and rights. By promoting schools for girls and allowing widow remarriage, reformers helped lay the groundwork for gender equality.
– Confrontation of Caste-Based Discrimination: Movements led by figures like Swami Dayananda Saraswati and Jyotirao Phule directly challenged casteism, seeking to create an inclusive society and encouraging self-respect among oppressed communities.
– Critique of Superstition: Reformers questioned idolatry, animal sacrifice, and other ritualistic practices that they saw as barriers to social progress. By emphasizing rationality, they inspired future movements to promote scientific temper and education.

Legacy of 19th-Century Social Reformers

The legacy of these reformers endures, inspiring future movements that empower marginalized communities and contribute to shaping modern India’s progressive fabric. They laid the groundwork for a society striving for equality, justice, and education, elements that remain central to India’s national consciousness and continued social development. The impact of their efforts is seen in subsequent social and political movements aimed at achieving an inclusive society free from discrimination and inequality.

Conclusion

The socio-religious reform movements aimed to support social justice in India and curb the social evils and promote women’s education in society. These religious movements were very helpful to the British Empire in enacting the various laws on Sati, widow remarriage, and fixing the minimum age of marriages. The socio-religious reform movement in India has raised the voice for women’s education. As a result of this struggle, diverse educational institutions were opened at that time, and later on, these institutions were transformed into universities. The voice against untouchability was the major contribution to drafting the Indian constitution. At last, these social reforms of India fetched a peace and union among Hindu, Muslim, and Sikh communities and motivated them to achieve social justice.

स्थापना वर्ष और नेता:

• द्वितीय विश्व युद्ध की समाप्ति के बाद शीत युद्ध का दौर शुरू हुआ, जिसमें संपूर्ण विश्व वैचारिक आधार पर मुख्यतः दो गुटों में विभाजित हो गया।
  • इस वैचारिक युद्ध के एक छोर पर साम्यवादी सोवियत संघ तो दूसरे छोर पर पूंजीवादी अमेरिका जैसी महाशक्तियाँ मौजूद थीं।
• असल में गुटनिरपेक्ष आंदोलन (NAM) की स्थापना औपनिवेशिक व्यवस्था के पतन के दौरान हुई थी। यह वह दौर था जब नए-नए देश औपनिवेशिक गुलामी से आज़ाद हो रहे थे और वैश्विक पटल पर एक नई पहचान प्राप्त करने में लगे थे, भारत भी इन्हीं देशों में से एक था।
• हालाँकि वर्ष 1955 से पूर्व भी स्वतंत्रता और तटस्थता की मांग की जा रही थी, किंतु अधिकांश इतिहासकार मानते हैं कि गुटनिरपेक्षता की ओर पहला अहम कदम बांडुंग सम्मेलन (वर्ष 1955) के माध्यम से उठाया गया, जिसमें भारत के तत्कालीन प्रधानमंत्री जवाहर लाल नेहरू, अब्दुल नासिर, सुकर्णो और मार्शल टीटो जैसे नेताओं ने हिस्सा लिया था। इस सम्मेलन में विश्व शांति और सहयोग संवर्द्धन संबंधी घोषणा पत्र जारी किया गया था।

सदस्यता:

• बांडुंग सम्मेलन के छह वर्ष बाद सितंबर 1961 में यूगोस्लाविया के बेलग्रेड में गुटनिरपेक्ष आंदोलन (NAM) का पहला शिखर सम्मेलन आयोजित किया गया और इसमें कुल 25 देशों के प्रतिनिधियों ने हिस्सा लिया।
• वर्तमान में गुटनिरपेक्ष आंदोलन संयुक्त राष्ट्र के बाद विश्व का सबसे बड़ा राजनीतिक समन्वय और परामर्श का मंच है। इस समूह में वर्ष 2018 तक कुल 120 विकासशील देश शामिल थे। इसके अतिरिक्त इस समूह में 17 देशों और 10 अंतर्राष्ट्रीय संगठनों को पर्यवेक्षक का दर्जा प्राप्त है।

ऐतिहासिक महत्व:

गुटनिरपेक्ष आंदोलन (NAM) का उदय मुख्यत: उपनिवेशवाद और शीत युद्ध की पृष्ठभूमि में हुआ था, किंतु अब दोनों ही समाप्त हो चुके हैं, जिसके कारण लोग मानते हैं कि गुटनिरपेक्ष आंदोलन की प्रासंगिकता भी समाप्त हो गई है, हालाँकि अधिकांश जानकार मानते हैं कि गुटनिरपेक्ष आंदोलन आज भी अपने सिद्धांतों के कारण उतना ही प्रासंगिक है, जितना शीत युद्ध के दौर में था।

• विश्व शांति: गुटनिरपेक्ष आंदोलन ने विश्व शांति को संरक्षित करने के प्रयासों में सक्रिय भूमिका निभाई है। गुटनिरपेक्ष आंदोलन (NAM) के सदस्य देश आज भी शांतिपूर्ण और समृद्ध दुनिया स्थापित करने के अपने लक्ष्य को लेकर आगे बढ़ रहे हैं और भारत भी इनमें से एक है। 
• क्षेत्रीय अखंडता और संप्रभुता: गुटनिरपेक्ष आंदोलन क्षेत्रीय अखंडता और संप्रभुता के सिद्धांत का समर्थन करता है और इसके सदस्य देशों द्वारा प्रत्येक राष्ट्र की स्वतंत्रता के संरक्षण के विचार को बार-बार दोहराया जाता है, जो कि इसकी मौजूदा प्रासंगिकता को स्पष्ट करता है।
• न्यायसंगत विश्व व्यवस्था: गुटनिरपेक्ष आंदोलन एक न्यायसंगत विश्व व्यवस्था को बढ़ावा देने का प्रयास कर रहा है। यह अंतर्राष्ट्रीय व्यवस्था में विद्यमान राजनीतिक और वैचारिक मतभेदों के बीच एक सेतु का काम कर सकता है।
• विकासशील देशों के लिये एक मंच: यदि विकासशील देशों के बीच किसी विशिष्ट मुद्दे को लेकर मतभेद पैदा होता है तो गुटनिरपेक्ष आंदोलन उस मतभेद को हल करने हेतु एक महत्त्वपूर्ण मंच के रूप में कार्य कर सकता है।

आधुनिक चुनौतियाँ:

• गुटनिरपेक्ष आंदोलन को इसकी स्थापना के समय की भांँति वर्तमान में भी अपने उद्देश्यों में एकरूपता लानी होगी, इसके अतिरिक्त सदस्य देशों को क्षेत्रीय गुटबंदी की राजनीति पर रोक लगाने का प्रयास करना होगा।
• गुटनिरपेक्ष आंदोलन (NAM) का आतंकवाद, जलवायु परिवर्तन और व्यापार संरक्षणवाद जैसे महत्त्वपूर्ण वैश्विक मुद्दों को उठाने के लिये एक मंच के रूप में प्रयोग किया जाना चाहिये।

वर्तमान भूमिका:

• भारत गुटनिरपेक्ष आंदोलन का संस्थापक और इसके सबसे महत्त्वपूर्ण सदस्यों में से है तथा 1970 के दशक तक भारत ने इस आंदोलन की बैठकों में सक्रिय रूप से हिस्सा लिया, किंतु 1970 के दशक के बाद गुटनिरपेक्ष आंदोलन में भारत की स्थिति बदलने लगी और सोवियत संघ की ओर भारत का झुकाव बढ़ने लगा, जिससे गुटनिरपेक्ष आंदोलन (NAM) के उद्देश्यों को लेकर छोटे देशों के बीच भ्रम की स्थिति पैदा हो गई।
  • अंततः इससे गुटनिरपेक्ष आंदोलन की स्थिति कमज़ोर हुई और अधिकांश छोटे देश या तो अमेरिका की ओर या फिर सोवियत संघ की ओर अग्रसर होने लगे।