The world’s major fold mountain ranges are typically located along the margins of continents due to the tectonic processes that shape the Earth’s surface. The association between fold mountains, earthquakes, and volcanoes can be explained by the dynamics of plate tectonics.

1. Fold Mountains at Continental Margins:
   • Fold mountains are formed due to the collision and compression of tectonic plates, which can occur at the boundaries of continental landmasses.
   • When two continental plates or a continental plate and an oceanic plate collide, the denser oceanic plate is typically pushed under the less dense continental plate, a process known as subduction.
   • This subduction zone creates a zone of intense compressional forces, which leads to the uplift and folding of the Earth’s crust, resulting in the formation of fold mountain ranges.
   • Examples of major fold mountain ranges located at continental margins include the Himalayas (formed by the collision of the Indian and Eurasian plates), the Andes (formed by the subduction of the Nazca and South American plates), and the Rocky Mountains (formed by the collision of the North American and Pacific plates).
2. Association with Earthquakes:
   • Fold mountain ranges are often located in regions with high seismic activity due to the tectonic processes that create them.
   • The subduction of oceanic plates under continental plates or the collision of continental plates generates significant stresses within the Earth’s crust, leading to the release of this energy in the form of earthquakes.
   • The regions around fold mountain ranges, particularly along the plate boundaries, are known for their high earthquake risk, as these areas experience frequent tectonic movements and deformation.
3. Association with Volcanoes:
   • Fold mountain ranges are also closely associated with volcanic activity, as the subduction of oceanic plates can lead to the melting of the Earth’s mantle and the generation of magma.
   • The magma can then rise and erupt at the surface, forming volcanic mountains and chains of volcanoes, often located parallel to the fold mountain ranges.
   • Examples of this include the volcanic Andes Mountains in South America, the Cascade Range in western North America, and the volcanic islands of the Aleutian Arc in Alaska, which are all located near or within fold mountain ranges.

Blockchain technology has significant potential beyond its use in cryptocurrencies. Here are some of the key areas where blockchain technology can have a broader impact:

1. Supply Chain Management:
   • Blockchain can enhance supply chain transparency, traceability, and efficiency by providing a secure, decentralized platform to track the movement of goods, materials, and information.
   • This can help prevent fraud, improve inventory management, and ensure compliance with regulations.
2. Identity and Credential Management:
   • Blockchain can be used to create secure, decentralized digital identities that are more resistant to theft and fraud.
   • This can be particularly beneficial for individuals who lack access to traditional identity documents, such as refugees or unbanked populations.
3. Voting and Governance:
   • Blockchain technology can be used to create secure, transparent, and tamper-resistant voting systems, potentially improving the integrity and accessibility of the electoral process.
   • It can also support the development of decentralized governance models, where decisions are made through a distributed consensus mechanism.
4. Healthcare and Medical Records:
   • Blockchain can be used to store and manage medical records in a secure, decentralized manner, allowing patients to have greater control over their personal health data.
   • This can improve data sharing, reduce administrative costs, and enhance patient privacy.
5. Financial Services:
   • Beyond cryptocurrencies, blockchain can be used to create new financial instruments, enable cross-border payments, and facilitate peer-to-peer lending and crowdfunding.
   • This can increase financial inclusion and accessibility, particularly for underserved populations.
6. Energy and Sustainability:
   • Blockchain can support the development of decentralized energy grids, enabling peer-to-peer energy trading, smart contracts for renewable energy certificates, and the tracking of energy consumption data.
   • This can facilitate the integration of renewable energy sources and promote sustainable energy practices.
7. Real Estate and Asset Management:
   • Blockchain can streamline real estate transactions, improve the management of property records, and enable the tokenization of assets, allowing for fractional ownership and easier trading.

The legal frameworks and policies in India aimed at protecting women’s rights have had a mixed impact. While significant progress has been made, there are still areas where reforms are needed to better safeguard the rights and well-being of women in the country.

Protective measures and policies:

1. The Constitution of India guarantees equality, non-discrimination, and equal protection under the law for women.
2. Laws such as the Prevention of Domestic Violence Act, the Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace Act, and the Protection of Children from Sexual Offences Act have been enacted to address specific issues faced by women.
3. Government schemes like the Beti Bachao Beti Padhao initiative, the Ujjwala Yojana for providing LPG connections to BPL households, and the Mahila Shakti Kendra program aim to empower women and improve their access to health, education, and economic opportunities.

Areas where reforms are needed:

1. Inadequate implementation and enforcement of existing laws: Despite the legal frameworks, the effective implementation and enforcement of these laws remain a challenge, especially in rural and remote areas.
2. Societal attitudes and gender-based discrimination: Deeply entrenched patriarchal mindsets, gender-based discrimination, and the prevalence of harmful social norms continue to undermine the realization of women’s rights.
3. Gaps in legal protections: Certain areas, such as marital rape, are not adequately covered under the existing legal framework, leaving women vulnerable.
4. Access to justice and legal aid: Barriers, such as financial constraints, lack of awareness, and limited access to legal aid, hinder many women from accessing the justice system.
5. Economic empowerment and financial independence: Measures to enhance women’s economic participation, financial inclusion, and access to resources like land and property rights need further strengthening.
6. Addressing violence against women: Despite the laws, the high incidence of gender-based violence, including domestic violence, sexual assault, and trafficking, remains a significant challenge.

Reforms needed:

1. Strengthening the implementation and enforcement of existing laws through better coordination between the judiciary, law enforcement, and government agencies.
2. Addressing societal attitudes and promoting gender equality through sustained awareness campaigns, education reforms, and community-level interventions.
3. Expanding legal protections to cover gaps, such as the criminalization of marital rape.
4. Improving access to justice and legal aid, especially for marginalized and vulnerable women.
5. Enhancing women’s economic empowerment through increased access to education, skills training, entrepreneurship opportunities, and financial resources.
6. Bolstering measures to prevent and respond to gender-based violence, including strengthening support systems and victim rehabilitation services.

Unemployment is defined as a situation in which a mentally and physically capable person of working age is willing to work at the existing wage rate, but does not get a job to work. Unemployment is expressed by the following formula:

Unemployment rate = (Unemployed workers/Total Labour Force) X 100

In India, the unemployment rate is measured by the National Sample Survey Organisation on three approaches- daily status approach, weekly status approach and usual status approach.

Types of unemployment existing in a developing country like India

• Open unemployment: It is a situation where a large section of the labour force does not get a job that may provide them with regular income. When the labour force expands at a faster rate than the growth rate of the economy, open unemployment occurs.
• Disguised Unemployment: It is a situation in which more people are doing a work than actually required. Even if some are withdrawn, production does not suffer. It happens due to rapid growth of population and lack of alternative job opportunities e.g. overcrowding in agriculture.
• Seasonal Unemployment: Such unemployment occurs during certain seasons in industries and occupations such as agriculture, tourism, ice factories, etc. People remain unemployed in off- seasons.
• Cyclical unemployment: It results directly from cycles of economic upturn and downturn. Unemployment typically rises during recessions and declines during economic expansions.
• Voluntary Unemployment: When people choose not to work. It happens when people are not able to find employment that matches their expectations.
• Structural Unemployment: It occurs when the skills, experience, and education of workers do not match the demand of the industry due to technological changes etc.
• Frictional Unemployment: It refers to the period between job transitions. People are regarded as unemployed while they are attempting to find a new job.
• Casual unemployment: When a person is employed on a day-to-day basis (unorganised sector), unemployment may take place due to short term-contracts, shortage of raw materials, fall in demand, change of ownership, etc.

Other than these major types of unemployment existing in India, underemployment is also rampant. Here people are either employed on a part-time basis or undertake a job where lesser qualification is required e.g. post graduates applying for posts of peon. The faulty education system also adds to the unemployment by creating a mismatch between skills imparted and those required by the industries. For e.g. a large number of engineering graduates in India remain unemployed due to this.

The Constitution of India under Article 112 mandates the government to present before the Parliament a statement of estimated receipts and expenditures of the government for each financial year. This ‘Annual Financial Statement constitutes the main budget document of the government.

The government utilises the budget to intervene in the economy in the following ways:

Allocation function of government budget:

• The allocation function in budgeting determines where the government revenue will be spent. Certain goods, referred to as public goods (such as national defence, roads, government administration), as distinct from private goods (like clothes, cars, food items), cannot be provided through the market mechanism and must he provided by the government. This necessitates the involvement of the public sector enterprises in the economy.
• The allocation decisions become more significant in political and economic terms as a high proportion of national income is devoted to public expenditure. Further, the resources available to the government are scarce as calls for expenditure on specific services or activities, or for more generous transfer payments, usually exceed the amount that can reasonably be raised in taxation or by borrowing.
• Government tries to allocate resources in accordance with economic (profit maximisation) and social (public welfare) priorities of the country.

Redistribution function of government budget:

• The government through its tax and expenditure policies attempts to bring out income redistribution in the society that is fair to all. The government affects the personal disposable income of households by collecting taxes (from high income sections) and providing subsidies and transfer payments (to poorer sections).
• The argument for redistribution is that it would provide a more efficient means of eradicating severe hardship, suffering, or starvation. Left to itself, the market economy creates casualties among those who lack the skills to participate fully or those who have failed to generate sufficient resources to tide them over into old age. Therefore, the redistributive function of the government enhances the overall social welfare in the country.

Stabilisation function of government budget:

• The economy tends to be subject to substantial fluctuations and may suffer from prolonged periods of inflation or deflation. This depends upon the level of aggregate demand, which, in turn, depends on many factors such as income and credit availability. Government stabilises such fluctuations in the economy through policy measures.
• During inflation, the government brings a restrictive fiscal policy i.e. increases taxes and reduces its expenditure. Similarly, during deflation, the government adopts an expansionary fiscal policy i.e. decreases taxes and increases public expenditure to stabilise the economy.
• Stabilization of the economy, including high employment, control of inflation, and an equitable balance of payments are the objectives that the government attempts to fulfill through manipulation of fiscal and monetary policies.

Thus, in this manner, the government uses the budgetary functions of allocation, redistribution and stabilisation to achieve the goals of inclusive and equitable development in India.