The period from 1960’s to the end of 1980 is the most tumultuous time of newly independent India. This period has seen many changes in Indian politics, economy and forgein policy. India faced various external threats in forms of wars, its economy experienced bouts of recession and Indian democracy faced existential threat in the form of National emergency. However it was also a period where it won two major wars, the economy experienced growth, there was tremendous scientific development in telecommunications revolutions. This is also a period where Indian democracy came out of a testing phase of emergency with flying colours thus once and for all dispelling any doubts about the viability of Indian democracy.

Internal And External Shocks Between Mid 1960s To End Of 1980s

1.Shastri Years

2.Indira Gandhi Years

3.The Janata Years

Three years of the Janata government did not leave a substantial mark on India. However this period saw extreme political instability, and the spread of communalism and downward slide of the economy continued.

4.Rajiv Years

Economic Development During These Years

1. Shastri years: Shastri continued the socialist economic policies of Nehru. However three major economic developments that changed the face of independent India were taken during his reign.

1. To reduce chronic food shortages and to increase food production, the Shastri government initiated the Green revolution.
2. Another major decision was to start white revolution. He established the National dairy development board to increase milk production. This program was very successful with a massive increase in milk production.
3. He established the food corporation of India to deal with food shortages and to maintain buffer stocks. This organisation played a crucial role in India’s PDS system.

2. Indira years: The 14 years rule of Indira Gandhi saw many economic developments. . The Green revolution was taken up with full swing. Massive credit and HYV of seeds were to large farmers which ensured India within a decade became self-reliant in food production.

1. The major economic policy of this year was nationalisation of banks and other industries like coal. The bank nationalisation has particularly proved useful for it led to credit issuance required for the green revolution.
2. Indira Gandhi oversaw three five year plans, out of which two were successful in achieving their growth targets.
3. The 20 point program announced during the emergency period was successful in halting economic decline, exceeding targeted growth rate.
4. In Indira Gandhi’s second year populism was replaced by pragmatism. She started an operation with a cautious approach towards market reform and deregulation was taken up.

3. Rajiv Gandhi years: Rajiv years turned out to be the most remarkable in terms of economic development of India. . Rajiv Gandhi tried to liberalise the economy. He gave many incentives to private companies to increase Industrial production mainly in durable goods.

1. Rajiv particularly paid attention to development of modern communication and IT technologies. He started various technology missions. He created the environment for development of the IT industry in India. His efforts resulted in creation of MTNL and PCOs which helped in development of telephone networks in rural areas.
2. He took steps to reduce licence raj, and allowed businesses to purchase capital and reduced import restriction.

Apart from these headline achievements this period also saw many government schemes to reduce unemployment and improve the condition of the poor and middle class. The three year Janata rule though did not make significant contributions; it brought in food for work programs which served as a template for later such programs. The era saw India successfully battling food shortages, poverty, while trying to liberalise the economy and prepare for the technology era of the new millennium.

The Industrial Revolution refers to the greatly increased output of machine-made goods that began in England during the 18th century. Before the Industrial Revolution, people wove textiles by hand. Beginning in the middle 1700s, machines did this and other jobs as well. The Industrial Revolution started in England and soon spread to Continental Europe and North America.

Why Industrial Revolution Began In England

1.Role of Agriculture Revolution:The agricultural revolution of the 1700’s acted as a precursor for the Industrial revolution in England.

1. The agricultural revolution entailed buying of farms from small farmers and creating huge farmlands in which scientific methods of production like crop rotation, novel techniques in livestock breeding were practiced.
2. This agriculture revolution boosted agri prediction and income leading to better living conditions, and surplus capital in hands of wealthy landowners, which served as capital for the Industrial revolution.
3. Apart from boosting income, it also led to population explosion in England, which further boosted demand for food and goods. d. The small farmers whose land were bought out by wealthy landowners, moved to cities to work in factories that were just starting. Thus the needed labor for massive industry scale production was also supplied by the agricultural revolution.

2. Abundance of Natural Resources: In addition to a large population of workers, the U.K has natural resources that are crucial for the development of industries. . water power and coal to fuel the new machines.

1. Iron ore to construct machines, tools and buildings.
2. Rivers for cheap, faster and inland transportation.
3. Natural harbours from export and import of goods.

3. Economic strength of Britain: Britain had an expanding economy to support industrialization. Businesspeople invested in the manufacture of new inventions. Britain’s highly developed banking system also contributed to the country’s industrialization. . People were encouraged by the availability of bank loans to invest in new machinery and expand their operations. Growing overseas trade, economic prosperity, and a climate of progress contributed to the increased demand for goods. 4. Political Stability: Britain’s political stability gave the country a tremendous advantage over its neighbors. Though Britain took part in many wars during the 1700s, none of these struggles occurred on British soil. Furthermore, their military and political successes gave the British a posi- tive attitude. The British parliament also encouraged entrepreneurship by passing laws helpful to the growth of industries. 5. Era of Creativity and Technological Advances: 18th century Britain saw an explosion of creativity, new inventions revolutionised the industry and greatly sped up the process of production. Industrial revolution in England started with the textile industry and it is this industry that saw maximum and earliest inventions. Some major inventions of this era include the flying shuttle of John Kay, James Hargreaves’s spinning wheel, Richard Arkwright’s water frame, and invention of the power loom by Edmund Cartwright. 6. Improvements in Transportation: Progress in the textile industry spurred other industrial improvements. The first such development was steam engines. James watt developed a faster, and more efficient steam engine. This was followed by advancements in water transportation. The British government also built an extensive network of canals, waterways. 7. Development of Railways: The advent of railways was the chief driver of Britain’s Industrial revolution after the 1800’s. The first railway line laid in 1821 spurred industrial growth in Britain. It provided cheap means of transportation for industries, created thousands of new jobs, boosted Agri and fishing industries, and by making travelling easier it encouraged country people to take distant city jobs.

Socio-economic Consequences Of Industrial Revolution

The Industrial Revolution eventually led to a better quality of life for most people. Yet the change to machine production also caused immense human suffering. In Britain, the Industrial Revolution proved to be a mixed blessing.

1. As the pace of industrialisation quickened in Britain, quality of life has improved for people. By 1800 most of them could afford heat in their homes, wore better clothes, and ate better food.
2. Industrialisation also led to growth of cities. Due to the presence and growth of factories in urban areas, England gradually urbanised. Number of cities across Europe grew dramatically. London not only became an industrial hub but also the largest city in Europe.
3. Living conditions had deteriorated drastically. There was no proper regulation on building codes, no sanitary codes. England’s cities grew haphazardly. No proper amenities were present.
4. There was a lack of housing for people pouring in from villages for jobs, no proper education for children. Workers lived in dark, dirty shelters. Sickness and diseases like cholera became the norm of the day.
5. Working conditions in factories were horrifying. Workers including children and women used to work 14 hours a day, six days a week in dangerous machines without proper safety equipment. Industrial accidents and deaths were common.
6. Industrial revolutions gave rise to two new classes in the society. The rich capitalists who owned the factories and the poor labour who worked in the factory for partly wages. This massive income inequality gave rise to class tensions.

Despite the problems that followed industrialization, the Industrial Revolution eventually had a number of positive effects. It created jobs for workers. It contributed to the wealth of the nation. It fostered technological progress and invention. It greatly increased the production of goods and raised the standard of living. It was the Industrial revolution that ultimately made Britain the greatest superpower of that era and the largest colonial power.