That’s an insightful question about disaster management strategies. In my view, the most effective approach typically involves a balance of both prevention and response planning.

On the prevention side, investing in measures like earthquake-resistant infrastructure, early warning systems, and other proactive mitigation efforts can significantly reduce the impacts of disasters when they do occur. This “stitch in time” approach can save a huge amount of human suffering and financial costs down the line. Robust prevention strategies mean fewer disasters in the first place, which is the ideal outcome.

However, it’s also critical to have a well-rehearsed and coordinated response plan in place. Even with the best prevention efforts, disasters can and will still happen. Having dedicated search and rescue teams, pre-established evacuation routes and shelters, emergency supply caches, and other response capabilities allows communities to spring into action quickly and effectively when disaster strikes. This can mean the difference between life and death for many.

Ultimately, the most resilient disaster management frameworks leverage both prevention and response approaches in a complementary way. Prevention efforts reduce the frequency and severity of disasters, while robust response plans minimize the impacts when prevention falls short. It’s about building multiple layers of protection and preparedness.

The specific balance and prioritization between prevention and response depends on the local context – the hazards faced, the resources available, the community’s vulnerabilities, and so on. But in general, investing in both is crucial for creating a truly comprehensive and effective disaster management strategy. Does this help explain the key considerations? Let me know if you have any other questions!

Answer: Money is an economic unit that functions as a generally recognized medium of exchange for transactional purposes in an economy. Economically, each government has its money system. The following are the various functions of money:

• Medium of exchange: It means the money acts as an intermediary between the buyer and the seller.
• A convenient unit of account: The value of almost all goods and services can be expressed in monetary units.
• Acts as a store of value for individuals: Wealth can be stored in the form of money for future use. However, to perform this function well, the value of money must be sufficiently stable. A rising price level may erode the purchasing power of money.
• Standard of deferred payment: This means that if money is usable today to make purchases, it must also be acceptable to make purchases today that will be paid in the future. Advantages of money over other types of assets:
• Liquidity: Money is considered the most liquid form of asset which can be readily exchanged for other types of assets.
  • Other assets like gold, landed property, houses or even bonds may not be easily convertible to other commodities and do not have universal acceptability.
• Acceptability: Money is acceptable to anyone at any point in time because of is a legal tender.
  • For instance, in the barter system, there used to be issues of the double coincidence of wants.
• Durability: Unlike perishable items (food grains, fruits, etc.) in the case of barter, money is relatively more durable. However, there are soil rates in the case of the currency notes too.
• Portability: It means that the money can be conveniently carried from one place to another. This was not the case for other assets in the barter system.
  • For instance, to carry out a transaction in the barter system, one has to take a bullock cart (to carry the food grains) along with him/her.
• Stability: Money is relatively stable when compared with, say, cryptocurrencies. For example, the volatility associated with cryptocurrencies brings additional risks for the end-users.
• Uniformity: In barter exchange, the assets for exchange are not uniform. However, the currency of a particular denomination (e.g. Rs. 10) is all of the same size, shape, and value.

Fungibility: A 20-rupee note can be easily exchanged for other denominations, say 10, 5, etc. However, an animal for exchange in the case of a barter system, on the other hand, cannot be considered fungible. The presence of money in the market is a determinant of the economic condition of a country and it is regulated by the concerned Central Bank.

Answer: Since the publication of the first printed newspaper, the Bengal Gazette in 1780, the Indian nationalists who were attracted to modern civil liberties inspired by the French Revolution, realized the role of an independent press. In 1824 itself, Raja Rammohan Roy had protested against a regulation restricting the freedom of the press. Understanding this significance, many newspapers in various parts of India were started. This realization of the potential and conscious effort to develop and spread the press played a critical role in the early phase of the freedom struggle of India in the following manner:

• Political propaganda and education: Political work of the Indian National Congress during its initial years was greatly helped by the press, as it did not have its own organization structure then. Formation and propagation of nationalist ideology was carried out through the press.
• Preparation of masses: The national movement between the period of 1870 and 1918 had not yet resorted to mass agitation and the political work did not consist of active mobilization of people in mass struggles. The press was the chief instrument in arousing, training, mobilizing and consolidating nationalist public opinion.
• Enhancing the geographical spread of the freedom struggle: The influence of the press was not confined to the large cities and the towns. It carried the messages of leaders and nationalists to the far reaches of the country and library movements sprang up all over the country.
• Opposition to the government: The press played an institutional role of opposition to the government by criticizing the activities of the government and worked on the motto of “oppose, oppose, oppose”. Newspapers such as Amrit Bazar Patrika, Kesari, Mahratta etc. played an exemplary role in this regard.

However, arousing political consciousness, inculcating nationalism, exposing colonial rule, and ‘preaching disloyalty’ were no easy tasks and the press faced many challenges, such as:

• Sedition law: The Sedition clause under Section 124A and other sections like 153A and 565 of the Indian Penal Code (IPC) had stringent provisions, even imprisonment for life, with an attempt to silence the newspapers which were critical of the government. Bal Gangadhar Tilak faced three trials in cases related to sedition and was imprisoned twice.
• The Vernacular Press Act, 1878: It was passed by the colonial government to suppress the voice of the non-English newspapers, which were critical of the government after the famine of Bengal. Under this Act, press equipments were also seized.
• Other draconian legislations: In the early 1900s as the national movement gathered steam, the colonial government brought in many draconian acts like the Prevention of Seditious Meetings Act of 1911, Press Act of 1910, and Criminal Law Amendment Act of 1908 to suppress the voice of the Indian press. The Press Act of 1910, which brought over 1,000 newspapers under prosecution, made the Raj’s pockets heavier by Rs. 5 lakhs in form of securities and forfeitures.

Despite these challenges, the Indian press found ingenious ways to survive and thrive. The Amrit Bazar Patrika turned into an English publication overnight to avoid censorship under the Vernacular Press Act. Also, staunch defence of the freedom of the press was undertaken by the national leaders. Recognizing the significance of the freedom of the press in a democracy, it is now a fundamental right under the Constitution of India.

Answer: In the period of dual government i.e., 1765-1772, the Indian officials under the overall control of the British governor and British officials had ‘responsibility but no power’ while the company officials had ‘power but no responsibility’. This presented problems of exploitation of powers & rampant corruption and also attracted the jealousy of other sections of British society, especially politicians and merchants who wanted to be a part of the huge profit being generated in India. The question of the nature of relations between the East India Company (EIC) and its possessions with the government in Britain was therefore subsequently settled through incremental acts & regulations, such as: Regulating Act, 1773:

• It recognised, for the first time, the political and administrative functions of the Company.
• It strengthened the control of the British Government over the Company by requiring the Court of Directors (governing body of the Company) to report on its revenue, civil, and military affairs in India.
• The Governor of Bengal was made the Governor-General of Bengal and the governors of Madras and Bombay were made subordinate to him.
• It prohibited the servants of the Company from engaging in any private trade or accepting presents or bribes from the natives.

Pitt’s India Act, 1784:

• It distinguished between the commercial and political functions of the Company and for the first time the company’s territories in India were identified as British possessions.
• It allowed the Court of Directors (EIC representative) to manage the commercial affairs but created a new body called Board of Control (represented by the British government) to manage the political affairs. Thus, it established a system of double government or Dual Control.
• It empowered the Board of Control to supervise and direct all operations of the civil and military government or revenues of the British possessions in India.

Charter Act, 1793:

• It was aimed at reviewing the Charter granted to EIC by the Regulating Act of 1773.
• It continued the trade monopoly of EIC for another 20 years, however, the Company was asked to pay 5 lakh pounds annually from the Indian revenues to the British government (after paying its necessary expenses).
• It separated revenue administration and judicial functions of the Company and hence led to the disappearance of Maal Adalats (revenue courts).
• Senior officials of the Company were debarred from leaving India without permission.
• It laid down that the members of the Board of Control and their staff were to be paid out of the Indian revenues. This practice continued till 1919 and was one of the major reasons behind the drain of wealth.

Charter Act, 1813: The company’s rule was extended to another 20 years. However, their trade monopoly was ended except for the trade in tea, opium, and with China. Charter Act, 1813:

• This Act was the final step towards centralization of India’s administration.
• It ended all commercial activities of the EIC including monopoly over trade with China and in tea.
• The post of the Governor-General of India was created and he was entrusted with legislative power over the entire British India. All revenues were raised under his authority and he had complete control over the expenditure too. Now, the power to superintend, control and direct all civil and military affairs of the Company was under him.

Thus, various acts of the Parliament completely subordinated the company and its Indian administration to the British Government. This allowed the British to create a new system of administration to serve their purposes.