Climate change has far-reaching impacts on the environment, ecosystems, and human societies. Some of the most significant impacts of climate change include:

1. Rising Global Temperatures: The average global temperature has risen by about 1°C since the late 1800s, and is projected to continue to rise by another 2-5°C by the end of this century if greenhouse gas emissions continue to increase.
2. Extreme Weather Events: Climate change is linked to an increase in extreme weather events such as heatwaves, droughts, floods, and storms. These events can have devastating effects on communities and infrastructure.
3. Sea-Level Rise: Melting glaciers and ice sheets are causing sea levels to rise, leading to coastal erosion, flooding, and saltwater intrusion into freshwater sources.
4. Water Scarcity: Changes in precipitation patterns and increased evaporation due to warmer temperatures can lead to water scarcity, affecting agriculture, industry, and human consumption.
5. Loss of Biodiversity: Climate change is altering ecosystems, leading to the loss of biodiversity, extinction of species, and disruption of food chains.
6. Food Insecurity: Climate change can impact agricultural productivity, leading to food insecurity, especially for vulnerable communities.
7. Human Migration and Displacement: Climate-related disasters and changes in living conditions can lead to human migration and displacement, straining social services and infrastructure.
8. Economic Impacts: Climate change can have significant economic impacts, including damage to infrastructure, loss of productivity, and increased healthcare costs.
9. Human Health Impacts: Climate change can increase the spread of diseases, heat stress, and other health problems.
10. Cultural Heritage Impacts: Climate change can damage or destroy cultural heritage sites, monuments, and artifacts.
11. Social Impacts: Climate change can exacerbate social inequalities, lead to mental health issues, and erode social cohesion.

Some of the specific impacts of climate change are:

• Polar ice caps melting
• Increased risk of wildfires
• Changes in ocean chemistry
• Shifts in migratory patterns
• Increased risk of landslides
• Changes in weather patterns
• Increased risk of droughts

The causes of climate change are mainly anthropogenic (human-induced), including:

• Burning fossil fuels (coal, oil, gas)
• Deforestation
• Land-use changes (e.g., agriculture)
• Population growth
• Industrial processes

Overcoming difficulties in learning mathematics can be challenging, but there are several strategies that students can use to improve their understanding and performance:

1. Break it down: Break down complex problems into smaller, manageable steps. This can help students understand the process better and make it less overwhelming.
2. Practice consistently: Regular practice helps to build confidence and fluency in math. Encourage students to practice regularly, even if it’s just for a few minutes each day.
3. Use different learning resources: Utilize different learning resources such as textbooks, online tutorials, video lectures, and practice worksheets to find what works best for them.
4. Get help when needed: Don’t hesitate to ask for help when needed. Teachers, classmates, or online tutors can provide guidance and support.
5. Develop problem-solving strategies: Encourage students to develop problem-solving strategies such as working backwards, drawing diagrams, or using analogies to help them approach problems in a different way.
6. Focus on understanding concepts: Focus on understanding the underlying concepts rather than just memorizing formulas and procedures.
7. Use visual aids: Visual aids such as graphs, charts, and diagrams can help students visualize complex mathematical concepts and relationships.
8. Take breaks: Take regular breaks to avoid burnout and frustration. Sometimes, stepping away from a problem can help clear the mind and come back to it with a fresh perspective.
9. Stay organized: Keep track of assignments, notes, and schedules to stay organized and focused.
10. Celebrate small victories: Celebrate small victories and accomplishments along the way to stay motivated and encouraged.
11. Find real-world applications: Connect math to real-world applications and scenarios to make it more relevant and interesting.
12. Use technology: Utilize technology such as math apps, games, or online platforms to make learning math more engaging and interactive.
13. Work in groups: Collaborate with peers or join a study group to learn from others, share ideas, and get support.
14. Reflect on mistakes: Reflect on mistakes and errors made during problem-solving to learn from them and improve future approaches.
15. Stay positive: Maintain a positive attitude towards math by reframing challenges as opportunities for growth and development.

The fight of transgenders for equal rights is decades old in India. After some consecutive judgements government of India tried to legislate a Bill on transgender rights. Earlier a Bill was drafted in 2016. It had many controversial provisions, therefore it failed to pass in Parliament. Recently, the government brought another bill removing some of the earlier controversial provisions, and this bill successfully passed on the floor of Rajya Sabha. A critical analysis of the bill shows that this bill does not comply with many of the guidelines suggested under various judgements of the Supreme Court as well as some of the progressive High Courts judgements.

Judgments Over The Years

1. Naz Foundation v Government of NCT Delhi or as it is popularly known as Naz Judgement is a 2009 judgement by the Delhi High Court. In this judgement for the first time, Delhi High Court declared Section 377 to be unconstitutional.
2. In NALSA judgement of 2014, for the first time in legal history, Transgender people were recognised as citizens of this country. All the Fundamental Rights were extended to them and they were given the identity of the Third Gender.
3. Under NALSA judgement, the SC laid a comprehensive set of guidelines that every State must follow to bring Transgenders into public spheres and provide remedies for their marginalisation.
4. The Puttaswamy judgement expanded the scope of Article 21 of the Constitution of India which grants us Right to Life and Liberty to include Right to Privacy. Right to Privacy was also extended to every individual irrespective of their gender and sex. It grants Transgenders the autonomy and protection from State action while exercising their right to choose their partners.
5. Navtej Singh Johar v Union of India is the seminal judgement that decriminalized homosexuality in India. It struck down Section 377 to the extent that it criminalized sex between two consenting adults. It recognized that every individual irrespective of their gender identity and sexual orientation have the right to live with dignity, autonomy and make personal and private without State interference.
6. Arun Kumar v Inspector General of Registration, Tamil Nadu is a case from the Madras High Court which reads into the category of brides to include transwomen. Under the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 the definition of marriage only includes men and women. This judgement expands the category of women to include transgender people to identify as women to be brides as well. It takes the clause of self-identification as has been mentioned in the NALSA judgement, where a person can identify as any gender identity without needing a State or external body to verify their identity.

Bill Fails On Expectations

1. The Bill provides that a transgender person may make an application to the District Magistrate for a certificate of identity indicating the gender as ‘transgender’ and a revised certificate may be obtained if a transgender person undergoes surgery to change gender either as a male or female. This provision is in violation of NALSA v Union of India that had affirmed the right to self-determination of gender as male, female or transgender without the mandate of any medical certificate or sex-reassignment surgery (SRS).
2. The Bill does not provide for reservation in education and employment for transgender persons, going against the mandate in NALSA, which had clearly stated that the state must take measures “to treat them as socially and educationally backward classes of citizens and extend all kinds of reservation in cases of admission in educational institutions and for public appointments”.
3. The Bill does not tackle the question of realisation of civil rights such as marriage, civil partnership, adoption and property rights, thereby continuing to deprive transgender persons of their fundamental rights and the constitutional guarantee provided by the Supreme Court in Puttaswamy, Navtejsingh Johar, and NALSA judgements.
4. Despite including identities such as “genderqueer” and “persons with intersex variations” in the definition of “transgender”, the Bill has failed to incorporate the rights of such persons, putting them in danger of being excluded by a system which certifies people based on medical examination. It is a violation of NALSA as well as Navtej Singh Johar judgements.
5. The clauses such as “the rescue, protection and rehabilitation of transgender persons” could potentially give rise to police crackdowns against transgender persons, especially sex workers. It might also grant impunity to the police to arbitrarily arrest transgender persons under the pretext of “rescuing” them, and, use provisions of anti-beggary laws whose vagueness allows for disproportionate violence against the most marginalised communities.
6. While Bill seeks to prohibit discrimination, it does not explicitly define what constitutes discrimination. Whereas NALSA judgements clearly said that discrimination against transgenders amounts to discrimination under Article 15, which prohibits discrimination based on sex.

Bill Does Not Fail On Expectations

The Transgender Bill includes several progressive provisions as guided by the Supreme Court in various judgements. Some of these provisions are as follows;

1. It prohibits discrimination against a transgender person on grounds including denial, discontinuation or unfair treatment in educational establishments, services, employment, healthcare.
2. The provides that every transgender person will have the right to be included in their household, and in case the immediate family is unable to take care of the person, he/she may be placed in a rehabilitation centre.
3. It states that the government shall provide education, sports and recreational facilities for transgender people.
4. Provisions for separate HIV surveillance centres and sex reassignment surgeries should also be provided by the government.
5. The Bill mentions formulating transgender sensitive, non-stigmatising and nondiscriminatory welfare schemes and programmes.
6. The government should also take steps for the rescue, rehabilitation and protection of transgender persons.
7. The Bill states that every establishment will have to appoint a complaints officer to deal with complaints relating to the violation of any provisions.

The battle for equality and recognition for the transgenders has been long and still ongoing. However, judicial recognition to address rights and provide remedies matters for the project of equality and dignity. The Transgender Bill has many flaws and provisions against the guidelines given in many judgements. Our Parliament must not let down the community that fought for their rights for decades. Transgender people in India should be able to live with dignity and non-discrimination, and have equal access to education, employment, and health services.

Secularisation is the process where a society transforms from having a close identification with religious values and institutions towards non-religious values and institutions. It is a reflection of the fact that as a society undergoes modernisation, the authority of religion diminishes in all the aspects of social life and governance. Indian society with its economic and social growth has been experiencing a similar process of secularisation.

Key Features Of Secularized Society

1. State independent of religion.
2. Diminishing authority of religion and religious institutions.
3. Fall in religion and caste-based oppression and violence.
4. Rise of modern and secular institutions.
5. Individuals do not primarily identify with religion, caste, language and region.

Secularization Of Indian Society

Secularisation in India has been a gradual process which started at the outset of independence and has been a key feature of Indian society since then.

1. Secularism and Constitution of India

1. “We the people of India…” adopted the constitution not just as a legal document, rather it reflects the vision and mission of Indian society as a whole.
2. It abolished all the discriminations based on religion and is committed to equality, justice and fraternity. To further validate the secular nature of India, the word “secular” was inserted by the 42nd constitutional amendment act.
3. Constitutional provisions such as Article 15, 16, 17 and 25 etc are examples of secular expectations of Indian society.

2. Secularism and Laws & Acts of India

1. Parliament is a congregation of representatives chosen by people of India. They make laws and acts fulfilling the aspirations of the people.
2. Beginning from Hindu Code Bills in the 1950s till Muslim Women (Protection of Rights on Marriage) Act, 2019, hundreds of laws and acts were passed and implemented to transform Indian society.

3. Cases and Judgements

1. People are filing PILs pleading to discard discriminatory practices of the religion. It indicates the increasing tendencies of questioning the religion, which is a secular trait.
2. The Sabarimala and the Triple talaq judgement of the Supreme Court signalled precedence of women‘s rights over religious practices, thereby establishing the secular credentials of our society.
3. Decriminalisation of adultery and Navtej Singh Johar judgement on Section 377 are also indications that Indian society is now more open and accepting of ideas which may contradict their religious beliefs.

4. Secularism in Public sphere

1. Inter-caste and inter-religious marriages are on the rise, reflecting the vanishing religious barriers separating the communities within Indian society. More and more couples are preferring marriage under the Special Marriage Act.
2. Globalisation and modernisation affecting the food habits and cultural practices of Indian society. A society which was predominantly vegetarian due to religion is now accepting all kinds of food habits.
3. Similarly, pariah or ghunghat is losing its religious importance. It is becoming one’s choice to live the way they want to live rather than being dictated by religion.
4. Changing the pattern of the economy, people are choosing occupations irrespective of religion. Individuals belonging to any religion or caste are now free to do any business with any partner irrespective of religious identities.
5. Festivals become more a social affair than religious. Now people celebrate Holi, Diwali etc., not so much for their religious significance, as for their entertainment value.

Indian Society Is Yet To Be Secularised

It has been seen that secularisation in India has largely restricted to the public institutions and has not permeated to the society at large.

1. People in our society prefer to vote on caste and religious lines rather than development and employment agendas. General elections at centre and state from the last few years have become the source and destination of communal violence in India.
2. Easy Inter-caste and inter-religious marriages are still a distant dream. Honour Killing and intolerance on the religious lines are frequent events in Indian society.
3. The mark of a secularized society is having common civil laws equally applicable to all citizens irrespective of any differentiating markers. However, in the absence of uniform civil code as mandated by article 44, today personal laws of various communities are governed by their religious scriptures.
4. People are searching religious angles in heinous crimes well; for example, if a rapist belongs to a particular religion then the whole community of that religion is being targeted for his crime.
5. Untouchability which has the religious sanction of Hindu texts is still prevalent in the society. Though occupational segregation based on caste is diminishing, even today jobs in the leather industry, burning of dead bodies, carcass clearing of dead animals, manual scavenging is done by people who belong to untouchable sections of Hindu society.
6. A 2015 study on patterns on untouchability in India found that 27 per cent of India still practises untouchability, with 30 per cent households in rural and 20 per cent in urban areas despite article 17 and Protection of Civil rights Act, 1955.
7. Mob-lynchings are no longer considered as “crimes” if they are being done to “protect” the religion.
8. Electronic media/ news channels are running hate propaganda 24 by 7 to earn high TRP, but their irresponsible journalism is affecting the secular social fabric of India.

Secularizing a society is deeply tied to the question of the kind of society that we want. If we want a secular society then that involves a change of mindset, we would have to cease to think of ourselves as identified primarily by religion, caste, or language, and start thinking of ourselves primarily as equal citizens of one nation, both in theory and in practice. This involves mutual obligations between the state and the citizen applicable to all. The relationship of other identities such as religion, caste, language and region, will inevitably become secondary. This is a change Indian society is experiencing in certain aspects. However religion and caste in India are more than primary identities, they are a way of life which dictate our life both in the public and private sphere. Thus true secularization of society will happen only with a change in the mindset of people.

The French revolution of 1789, was one of the most crucial events that shook not only French society and Europe but the entire world. The French revolution is the most dramatic and complex event that was rooted in the social and political conditions of France of the 18th century and the ideas prevailing throughout Europe in the Age of Enlightenment. This revolution gave to the world the ideas of many great political philosophers whose ideas about democracy, republic, role of church, government and constitutionalism laid the foundation stone for the modern world’s polity, inspired art, culture and many revolutions across Europe and the world.

Influence Of French Revolution On France

1. Constitutional Monarchy: The king was reduced to a figurehead, the nobility deprived of titles and estates. Clergy, judges and magistrates were controlled by the state instead of the King. 2.Constitutionalism: The Revolution meant an end to arbitrary royal rule and held out the promise of rule by law under a constitutional order. Napoleon as emperor set up a constitutional system and the French Third Republic was launched with a deep commitment to upholding the ideals of the Revolution. 3.End of Feudal system: From the social point of view, the Revolution suppressed the feudal system, in the emancipation of the individual, in greater division of landed property, the abolition of the privileges of noble birth. 4.Economic sphere: Revolution had broken up large estates controlled by Church and Nobility, thus transforming rural France into land of small independent farms.

1. Revolution also ended harsh taxation system on farmers thus bringing them much needed refeil.
2. In the cities, entrepreneurship on a small scale flourished, as restrictive monopolies, privileges, barriers, rules, taxes and guilds gave way.

5. End of Domination by Catholic church: The domination of church was replaced by the concept of the French nation or people as a focus of common allegiance in a secular state. Church and state were separated and freedom of religion was established. 6. Idea of Nationalism: The revolutions gave birth to the concept of modern Nation-state and spirit of nationalism. It ingrained in the minds of people that France was not a kingdom of any King but a nation belonging to French people.

Influence Of French Revolution On Europe

1. Spread of ideas of Liberalism and Equality: The idea of giving people liberty and equality through a constitution was one of the important achievements of the revolution. And when Napoleon conquered Europe in the 1800s, constitutions were introduced into the states that came under French control. 2. Change is Mindset of people across Europe: Having experienced constitutional rule, people across Europe became liberals, even after the defeat of Napoleon and return of Monarchy after 1815. 3. Served as an source of ideals: The revolutionaries of the nineteenth century borrowed images as well as ideas from the French Revolution. a. The most famous of those images was that of ‘Liberty’. Liberty was portrayed as a young woman, Marianne,who appeared in countless revolutions of 1830’s. 4. Spread of Nationalism across Europe: Revolutionary wars under Napoleon played an instrumental role in the spread of nationalism in territories occupied by him and also created conditions necessary for unification of Italy and Germany. 5. Source of Inspiration: For liberals, nationalists and socialists in Europe who sought to bring about fundamental changes to the existing social and political order, 1789 was the inspiration.

Influence Of French Revolution On World

1. Ideals of Modernity– Several Ideologies of liberty, equality, and fraternity are inspired by the French revolution, where all citizens promised individual freedoms, equality in status, and brotherhood.
2. Democracy- It is one of the greatest contributions of the revolution as can be seen in the modern world. The revolution of 1789 inspired movements against colonialism for freedom and self-rule around the world.
3. Secularism: The revolution ended the sovereignty, despotism and corruption of the Church. The importance of the worship of intellect and reason became more prominent.
4. Eradication of Slavery System– The abolition of Slavery after the French revolution was the first move against this repressive system and Britain followed suit in 1833 while the USA banned it in 1865.
5. The root of modern day socialism is also traced from the French revolution. Babeuf in communist teaching is known as the 1st modern communist. He was a highly radical personality and staunch supporter of the idea of equality.
6. The Birth of Ideologies – The French revolution gave birth to the Ideologies. Prior to the French Revolution, people lived in the world where a monarchial form of government had been ruling for centuries. However, after the French Revolution, this form of government was ended.

The French revolution contributed to the ideals of modernity- liberty, equality, fraternity etc to the world. Besides these all, it paved a way for new markets and trade through which globalization phenomena came into existence. Thus, the French had not only contributed to administrative reform but also helped in the growth of the modern economy, society and political structure. Most of the nations in modern times including India have adopted the ideas of these revolutions in their socio-economic and political system.