Cultural and linguistic organizations like the Akhil Bharatiya Vidyarthi Parishad (ABVP) and the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) have distinct objectives and methods for promoting their cultural and ideological agendas in India. Their activities significantly impact the socio-political discourse in the country. Here’s an overview of each organization:

Akhil Bharatiya Vidyarthi Parishad (ABVP)
Objectives
Promotion of Nationalism: ABVP aims to foster a sense of nationalism and patriotism among Indian students.
Educational Reforms: The organization advocates for reforms in the Indian educational system to align it more closely with traditional Indian values and culture.
Student Welfare: ABVP works to address issues faced by students, including academic, administrative, and social concerns.
Youth Engagement: It aims to involve youth in nation-building activities and create awareness about socio-political issues.
Methods
Student Mobilization: ABVP actively recruits and organizes students through educational institutions, using rallies, seminars, and workshops to disseminate its message.
Campus Activities: It conducts cultural programs, competitions, and lectures to promote Indian culture and values.
Advocacy and Protests: ABVP often engages in protests and agitations to voice student concerns and demand policy changes.
Publications and Media: The organization publishes literature and uses social media to spread its ideology and connect with the student community.
Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS)
Objectives
Hindu Nationalism: RSS promotes the idea of Hindutva, seeking to establish Hindu cultural values as the foundation of Indian society.
Social Welfare: The organization aims to serve society through various social service activities.
Cultural Preservation: RSS focuses on preserving and promoting traditional Indian (Hindu) culture, practices, and languages.
National Unity: It strives to foster a sense of national unity and cohesion, emphasizing a unified Hindu identity.
Methods
Shakhas (Branches): Daily and weekly meetings (shakhas) are conducted to train members in physical activities, discipline, and ideological education.
Educational Programs: RSS runs numerous educational institutions to promote its values and ideas from a young age.
Social Service: Through its affiliated organizations, RSS is involved in various social welfare activities, including disaster relief, health services, and rural development.
Publications and Media: RSS publishes books, magazines, and online content to propagate its ideology and reach a wider audience.
Impact on Socio-Political Discourse
Political Influence: Both ABVP and RSS have strong links with the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), influencing its policies and political strategies. Many BJP leaders have backgrounds in these organizations.
Cultural Shifts: These organizations have significantly contributed to the rise of Hindu nationalism and a shift towards more conservative social and cultural policies in India.
Educational Policies: Their advocacy has influenced changes in educational policies and curricula to emphasize Indian culture and values more prominently.
Social Mobilization: Through their extensive networks, they mobilize significant segments of society, particularly youth, to support their agendas.
Controversies and Criticism: Both organizations have faced criticism for promoting majoritarian views, marginalizing minority communities, and stoking communal tensions. Critics argue that their activities sometimes lead to polarization and societal division.
Overall, the ABVP and RSS play influential roles in shaping India’s socio-political landscape, promoting their vision of Indian culture and values while simultaneously sparking significant debate and controversy.

The term “feminization of poverty” underscores the unequal impact of poverty on women, stemming from factors such as unequal resource access, constrained economic opportunities, and gender-based bias. This signifies the complex relationship between poverty and gender, revealing women’s unique vulnerabilities and challenges in attaining financial stability, as corroborated by data from Manya Rathore on July 10, 2023, in 2022, approximately 45 million females lived in impoverished conditions, in contrast to roughly 38 million males. This can be attributed to following factors:

Factors Contributing to the Feminization of Poverty in India:

• Gender Wage Gap: Women in India often earn lower wages than men for similar work, exacerbating their vulnerability to poverty. As of 2022, the gender pay gap in India stood at around 22%, indicating unequal earnings between men and women. This wage gap is even wider in some sectors, such as agriculture and manufacturing.
• Limited Access to Education: The literacy rate for women in India is still lower than that of men, at 67% compared to 82%. This means that women are less likely to have the skills and knowledge they need to get good jobs and earn a decent income, leading to the perpetuation of poverty.
• Unpaid Care Work: Women disproportionately shoulder domestic and caregiving responsibilities, often unpaid and undervalued, which limits their participation in the formal workforce and economic activities, contributing to their impoverishment. On average, women in India spend nearly six times more time on unpaid care work than men.
• Lack of Resource Ownership: Women’s limited land ownership, livestock, and limited property rights restrict their access to resources and financial security. According to NSSO, women in India own less than 10% of land, thus making them vulnerable to landlessness and poverty.
• Vulnerable Employment: Women are often employed in informal and precarious sectors with low wages, no job security, and minimal social protection. A study by the ILO found that women are more likely to be employed in informal sectors, such as agriculture and domestic work, where they are more vulnerable to exploitation.
• Gender-Based Violence: According to the NCRB, there were over 440,000 cases of crimes against women in 2022, including rape, domestic violence, and sexual harassment. Violence can force women into poverty due to physical, psychological, and economic consequences. For example, a study by the World Bank found that women who have experienced domestic violence are more likely to be unemployed and live in poverty.
• Limited Access to Financial Services: Women’s restricted access to formal financial services, including credit and banking, hinders their economic mobility and entrepreneurship. A 2022 survey by the World Bank found that only 24% of Indian women have a bank account in their name.
• Healthcare Disparities: A study by the WHO found that women in India are more likely to die from pregnancy-related complications than women in any other country. This is due to a number of factors, including lack of access to healthcare, poor sanitation, and malnutrition.
  • Moreover, a study by the IIHMR found that women in rural areas are more likely to die from pregnancy-related complications than women in urban areas.
• Discrimination and Stereotyping: Societal norms and discrimination against women limit their choices and opportunities, funneling them into lower-paying jobs and perpetuating their economic vulnerability. A study by the NCW found that 60% of women in India have experienced some form of discrimination in one or other form, such as being denied a job or promotion, being paid less than men for the same work, or being harassed or abused.
• Lack of Political Representation: As of 2023, women make up only 14% of the Indian Parliament. This lack of representation means that women’s voices are often not heard when it comes to making decisions that affect their lives. A study by the Centre for Policy Research also found that women are less likely to be consulted about development projects that affect them.

Measures to Solve the Issue:

• Women’s Education Empowerment: Enhance access to quality education for girls and women, ensuring they acquire skills for better job prospects, following the footsteps of the “Let Girls Learn” initiative, championed by former U.S. First Lady Michelle Obama.
• Legal Empowerment: Strengthen legal support and awareness programs for women, addressing issues such as property rights, domestic violence, and workplace harassment, inspired by the “MeToo” movement that sparked legal reforms worldwide.
• Women’s Empowerment Centers: Establish centers offering vocational training, financial literacy, and entrepreneurship support to enhance women’s skills and income opportunities, drawing inspiration from Bangladesh’s BRAC Empowerment and Livelihoods for Adolescents program.
• Mobile Banking Solutions: Implement mobile-based banking services to improve women’s access to financial services, enabling them to save, invest, and access credit easily, taking cues from Kenya’s M-Pesa revolutionizing mobile banking.
• Gender-Responsive Agricultural Initiatives: Introduce programs that provide women farmers with access to modern farming techniques, tools, and markets, boosting agricultural productivity and income, following Rwanda’s “One-Cow-per-Family” initiative.
• Women’s Digital Platforms: Develop digital platforms offering online job opportunities, freelance work, and e-commerce platforms to connect women with income-generating activities, inspired by the Philippines’ Online Filipino Workers platform.
• Gender-Responsive Trade Policies: Implement trade policies that consider women’s needs and promote women-led businesses by providing access to international markets, mirroring Chile’s Gender Trade and Development Strategy.

• Financial Empowerment:

  • Promote rural economic activity through approaches like the Kudumbashree model, integrating Self-Help Groups (SHGs) and small processing units, akin to the Amul cooperative model, empowering rural women.
  • Introduce Women-Focused Microcredit Programs inspired by organizations like the Self-Employed Women’s Association (SEWA), offering tailored microloans for business initiatives, supported by findings from the Microfinance Information Exchange that indicate increased business initiation and income growth among women with microfinance access.
• Parental Leave Policies: Introduce gender-neutral parental leave policies that provide paid time off for both parents, encouraging shared caregiving responsibilities and women’s continued workforce participation, influenced by Norway’s parental leave policy.
• Gender-Inclusive Healthcare: Develop gender-responsive healthcare services, including maternal health and reproductive rights, exemplified by Sweden’s comprehensive healthcare system that prioritizes women’s health needs.
• Empowerment Through Technology: Promote digital literacy and technology skills among women, enabling them to access online education, remote work, and digital marketplaces, similar to South Korea’s SmartWork Centers providing technology training for women.
• Women’s Leadership Training: Launch leadership development programs that train and mentor women for leadership roles in various sectors, drawing inspiration from Germany’s initiative to increase women’s representation on corporate boards.

Acknowledging the growing feminization of poverty in India, where women are disproportionately affected by economic vulnerability, we stand at a critical juncture to pave an innovative path toward a future of gender-inclusive prosperity. Through concerted efforts and a commitment to equality, we can rewrite the narrative of poverty, forging a brighter future where every woman’s dignity is upheld and her economic well-being secured.

The emergence of the press in the early phase of the Indian national movement was a cornerstone development that shaped public opinion and aided the freedom struggle. In the Year 1780, the first newspaper in India entitled “The Bengal Gazette” was published. Newspapers and journals functioned as the voice of the masses, advocating for reform and liberation from British rule.

Role of the Press in the Early Phase of the Indian National Movement

• Political Awareness: Newspapers like “The Hindu” played a pivotal role in disseminating information about British policies that were discriminatory and oppressive. By exposing the British agenda, such as the Salt Tax and land revenue policies, these publications educated the masses.
• Catalyst for Unity: Regional newspapers like “Kesari” in Marathi and “Ananda Bazar Patrika” in Bengali were instrumental in fostering a sense of national unity, by covering issues that transcended linguistic and regional boundaries.
• Social Reforms: Publications like “Rast Goftar” aimed to reform society by advocating the eradication of social evils like untouchability and promoting women’s education. Through informed articles and editorials, they created awareness about the need for a broader reformist agenda.
• Dissemination of Nationalist Ideas: The contributions of Bal Gangadhar Tilak’s “Kesari” were enormous in popularizing nationalist sentiments. Tilak championed the concept of Swaraj and used his newspaper to propagate ideas that were essential during the Home Rule Movement.
• Boycott and Swadeshi: Newspapers acted as the mouthpiece for promoting the Swadeshi Movement. Articles and editorials called for the boycott of British goods while encouraging Indians to adopt Swadeshi products, contributing significantly to the idea of economic selfreliance.
• Documentation of Oppression: Newspapers played a critical role in bringing injustices like the Jallianwala Bagh massacre to the fore. The reporting on these incidents created a groundswell of public outrage, putting pressure on British authorities.
• Promotion of Indigenous Culture: Periodicals like “Yugantar” were more than just political publications. They took on the role of cultural advocates by promoting Indian literature, art, and language, thereby countering the British narrative of cultural superiority.
• Advocacy for Constitutional Reforms: In-depth analyses of proposals like the MorleyMinto Reforms were published, creating public awareness and opinion about such measures. This was vital in shaping how Indians responded to British governance strategies.
• International Exposure: The press didn’t limit itself to national issues but also covered international movements for civil rights and independence. This global perspective helped Indians contextualize their own struggle and drew parallels with other freedom movements worldwide.

Challenges faced by the Indian press during the early phase of the national movement.

• Sedition Laws: The most formidable challenge was the sedition law of 1837, often weaponized against nationalist publications. For instance, Bal Gangadhar Tilak faced sedition charges and was sentenced to six years in prison for his anti-British articles in “Kesari.”
• Censorship: The Vernacular Press Act of 1878 served as another tool of suppression. This Act enabled the British government to clamp down on any publication that it deemed ‘seditious,’ thereby severely limiting the scope for critical discourse against British rule.
• Financial Constraints: Financial instability, marked by a dependence on donations, subscriptions, or benevolent patronage from nationalist leaders, often hindered the ability of newspapers to scale their operations or increase their outreach.
• Limited Reach: The Indian population in the late 19th and early 20th centuries had a relatively low literacy rate, limiting the reach of printed media. Also the circulation was often confined to urban areas, failing to reach the grassroots level. Ex- At the beginning of the 20th century, India’s literacy rate was only 5.35%.
• Language Barriers: India’s linguistic diversity posed a considerable challenge. Newspapers were published in various languages and dialects, making it difficult to galvanize a unified movement against the British on a national scale.
• Limited Technological Infrastructure: The technology available for printing was rudimentary and costly. It restricted the number of copies that could be produced, thus reducing the newspapers’ potential to reach a broader audience.
• Import Taxes: The British levied high import duties on printing materials like ink and paper, escalating the operational costs for these newspapers. This acted as a deterrent to the entry of new players in the market.
• Fragmentation: The intense regional focus of some papers led to a fragmented national narrative. While they catered to specific linguistic or cultural groups effectively, they often failed to resonate on a pan-Indian level, thereby weakening the collective resistance against British rule.
• Competition: The media landscape was not devoid of pro-British publications. Newspapers like “The Statesman” often presented a counter-narrative that overshadowed the voice of nationalist papers, diluting their impact.

The press was an invaluable asset to the early Indian national movement, channeling collective sentiments and serving as a powerful tool against colonial oppression. While it faced numerous challenges, from restrictive laws to financial constraints, its enduring legacy lies in its unfaltering commitment to India’s struggle for independence.