Answer: In recent years, the India-Bangladesh relationship has witnessed unprecedented cooperation with both countries successfully resolving several old problems such as the exchange of conclaves and the conclusion of long-pending land and maritime boundary agreements. However, certain challenges remain, such as:

• River disputes: India shares 54 transboundary rivers with Bangladesh. Some of the major disputes include the Teesta River water sharing issue, the Tipaimukh Hydroelectric power project (proposed) on Barak River, etc.
• Illegal immigrants: India has witnessed a huge influx of illegal migrants through its porous borders with Bangladesh and both countries have their own version regarding this issue.
• Rohingya crisis: Bangladesh expects India to resolve the Rohingya crisis by putting pressure on Myanmar.
• Border management: It remains a bigger challenge due to the porous nature of the border, which provides pathways to the smuggling, and trafficking of arms, drugs, people, and cattle.
• Completing existing projects: Delay in execution of projects like Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, and Nepal Initiative (BBIN).
• The China factor: China is increasing its presence in Bangladesh, which can induce Bangladesh to use the China card to supplement its bargaining capacity against India.
• Increasing radicalization: The presence of groups like Jamaat-e-Islami and Harkat-ul-Jihad-al Islami Bangladesh (HuJI-B) fuels anti-India sentiments.

Notwithstanding the continued existence of the aforementioned issues, the two countries have been able to move forward and strengthen their relationship through several measures, including:

• Economic cooperation:
  • Bangladesh is India’s biggest trade partner in South Asia and fourth largest destination for Indian exports with bilateral trade rising from $2.4 billion in 2009 to $10.8 billion in 2020- 21.
  • Bangladesh is the biggest development partner of India today. India has extended 3 Lines of Credits (LOC) to Bangladesh in the last 8 years amounting to US$ 8 billion.
  • Cumulative FDI from India to Bangladesh has more than doubled from 2014-18 to around 570 million USD.
  • Both countries aim to conclude negotiations for the Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement (CEPA) by 2026.
• Security cooperation:
  • Both countries have agreed “to continue close security cooperation” over counter-terrorism, border crimes, and border management.
  • Through the defense cooperation framework pact, India is providing military equipment and technology transfer for enhancing cooperation in the field of strategic and operational studies. Bangladesh is helping India in combating secessionist activities in North Eastern India by denying safe havens for them.
  • Bangladesh has taken significant steps in dealing with major Indian insurgent organizations and maintained close cooperation with India in terms of intelligence sharing and security matters.
• Enhanced connectivity:
  • Both countries have agreed “to build resilient supply chains” between the two countries and “across the region” through more rail, road, inland waterways, and coastal shipping linkages.
  • Through the Protocol on Inland Water Transit and Trade, India is assisting Bangladesh to capture the potential of waterways. Akhaura-Agartala rail track will provide a major boost to the development and economy of eastern Bangladesh & north eastern India and reduce the distance between Kolkata and Dhaka by almost 1100 km.
• Capacity building:
  • SAARC satellite and National Knowledge Network helps boost Bangladesh’s digital capacity.
• Cultural ties:
  • It is being strengthened through a joint declaration for the celebration of Mahatma Gandhi’s birth anniversary (2019), 50 years of the Bangladesh War of Liberation (2021), etc.

Thus, notwithstanding some persisting challenges in the bilateral relationship, the two countries have shown maturity in moving forward on other issues, which has been termed as the “Golden Chapter” in the bilateral relationship between the two countries.

Answer: Nuclear technology is dual use in its essence i.e. it can be used for the production of electricity or medical isotopes, and also serve as a source of fissile material for nuclear weapons. Therefore, any civil cooperation in the field of nuclear energy, especially uranium enrichment and reprocessing of plutonium, increases the risk of proliferation and militarization of nuclear installations and spent fuel. In this context, a global central inter-governmental forum i.e. the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) was established in 1957 for the safe, secure, and peaceful use of nuclear science and technology. It is an autonomous organization within the United Nations system. It operates in four major areas, which include:

• Nuclear safety: It responds to nuclear emergency situations, and facilitates safeguarding and control of nuclear facilities.
• Nuclear security: It includes physical protection of nuclear materials and activities aimed at safe trading and prevention of smuggling.
• Nuclear safeguards and verification: It includes verification controls, ensuring supplies, and internationalization of the fuel cycle.
• Promotion of peaceful use of nuclear energy: It refers to technical and scientific cooperation with respect to the use of nuclear energy.

Under the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT), it is the legal obligation of the non-nuclear weapon states to conclude a bilateral Comprehensive Safeguards Agreement with the IAEA, making all nuclear materials held by them subject to the safeguards of the IAEA, which includes special inspection in case of suspicion. Despite its significance, several drawbacks have been observed in the functioning of the IAEA:

• Four countries with nuclear weapons i.e. India, Pakistan, Israel, and North Korea are not party to the NPT. Surprise nuclear tests conducted by some of these countries question the safeguard mechanism of the IAEA.
• It has been observed that the IAEA is not able to detect secret facilities or installations and has no authority to make control inspections at any installation and at any time without prior notice. For instance, it was not able to identify the nuclear weapon construction program of Iraq.
• Consent of the member state is required for inspection by the IAEA. For instance, a delay of two decades was observed in inspecting the nuclear facilities of Iran.
• The IAEA has no enforcement power and its authority is limited to verifying that a state is carrying out its safeguards obligation. It also has no means of physically preventing a state from breaching its safeguards agreements or of compelling it to comply with any directive issued by the Board of Governors.
• Member governments decide upon the level of the IAEA’s budget for all its operations on the basis of proposals made each year by the IAEA Secretariat. However, the verification programme of the organization remains chronologically underfunded, resulting in excessive reliance on extra-budgetary resources.

With the advancement in technology and rising need for energy, several countries including the UAE, Jordan, and Saudi Arabia are trying to establish their own civilian nuclear program and countries like Brazil, India, South Africa, and China are demanding international cooperation in the peaceful use of dual technologies. Considering these demands, there is a need to increase the budget of the IAEA and enhance its authority through adequate reforms.

The Constitution of a country is the supreme law that determines the relationship between the people and government in a territory and also the relationship among people living in that territory. All countries that have Constitutions are not necessarily democratic. But all countries that are democratic will usually have a Constitution; for example: U.S.A, France, India and South Africa. Importance of Constitution in democratic country like India:

• Lays down the structure and functions of the organs of the state: A Constitution usually specifies how the state and its various organs will be constituted, who will have power to take which decision.
  • For example, Articles 79 to 122 in Part V of the Indian Constitution; Articles 1, 2, and 3 of the US Constitution.
• Act as a beacon to the elected government: To guide what the elected government should aim to do and devise the policies accordingly.
  • For example, Directive Principles of State Policy.
• Rule of Law: It lays down limits on the power of the government and specifies the rights of the citizens.
  • For example, Article 13 of the Indian Constitution declares any law, which takes away or abridges the Fundamental Rights of citizens as void under certain circumstances.
  • o Fundamental Rights under Articles 12-35 of part III of Indian constitution
• Protection of Minorities: The Constitution in a democracy usually provides safeguards for the rights of minorities.
  • For example, Articles 29 and 30 of the Indian Constitution.
• It may lay down certain duties of citizens: A Constitution may lay down not only rights but also certain duties for citizens to help promote a spirit of patriotism and uphold the unity of the country.
  • Article 51(A) of the Indian Constitution lays down the duty of citizens individually and collectively to strive towards excellence in all spheres.
• Checks and balances: A Constitution ensures checks and balances among the different organs of the state.
  • For instance, under the Indian Constitution, the Judiciary has the power to exercise judicial review over legislative and executive actions.

Thus, a Constitution is necessary to ensure that the democratic principle of equality is not compromised, and also for social and economic progress of a country.