Major Problems of Indian Agriculture and Solutions

Agriculture is the backbone of India’s economy, employing nearly half the population and contributing significantly to GDP. However, Indian agriculture faces several challenges, ranging from outdated practices to external pressures like climate change. Addressing these issues is crucial for sustainable development.

Major Problems of Indian Agriculture

1. Low Productivity

• India’s agricultural yield per hectare is significantly lower than global standards.
• Reasons:
  • Traditional farming techniques.
  • Lack of mechanization.
  • Limited access to quality seeds and fertilizers.

2. Dependence on Monsoons

• Over 50% of India’s agricultural land is rainfed. Erratic monsoon patterns lead to droughts or floods, directly impacting crops.

3. Fragmented Landholdings

• With rising population, farms are divided into smaller plots, reducing economies of scale and profitability.
• Example: Over 86% of farmers in India are small or marginal, owning less than 2 hectares of land.

4. Post-Harvest Losses

• Inefficient storage and transportation infrastructure lead to significant losses, especially in perishable crops like fruits and vegetables.
• Fact: Nearly 20-30% of produce is wasted due to poor logistics.

5. Inadequate Credit Availability

• Farmers often rely on informal moneylenders due to limited access to institutional credit. This traps them in debt cycles.

6. Market and Pricing Issues

• Farmers often face price volatility and lack of proper marketing channels to sell their produce.
• Example: Despite bumper harvests, farmers sometimes fail to secure a fair price due to middlemen and inadequate MSP (Minimum Support Price) coverage.

7. Climate Change and Soil Degradation

• Rising temperatures, changing rainfall patterns, and soil erosion affect crop productivity.
• Excessive use of chemical fertilizers has degraded soil fertility.

8. Water Scarcity

• Overexploitation of groundwater for irrigation, especially in states like Punjab and Haryana, is unsustainable.
• Fact: Agriculture accounts for 80% of India’s freshwater usage.

Solutions to Overcome Problems

1. Adopting Modern Techniques

• Promote mechanization, precision farming, and sustainable agricultural practices.
• Use technologies like drones and sensors for monitoring crop health.

2. Improving Irrigation Facilities

• Expand micro-irrigation (drip and sprinkler systems) to reduce water wastage.
• Invest in watershed management and rainwater harvesting.

3. Land Reforms

• Encourage consolidation of fragmented landholdings into cooperative farming models for better resource utilization.

4. Strengthening Credit Support

• Expand coverage of institutional credit to reach marginal farmers.
• Simplify loan processes and provide crop insurance coverage.

5. Enhancing Storage and Logistics

• Build cold storage facilities and improve rural infrastructure to reduce post-harvest losses.
• Develop better supply chain systems to connect farmers directly with markets.

6. Boosting Market Access

• Expand e-NAM (National Agricultural Market) to bring transparency in pricing and reduce dependence on middlemen.
• Increase MSP coverage and ensure timely procurement.

7. Addressing Climate Change

• Promote crop diversification and climate-resilient crops.
• Reduce dependence on chemical fertilizers and encourage organic farming.

8. Education and Awareness

• Provide training to farmers on modern techniques, financial literacy, and government schemes.

Government Programs for Agricultural Development

1. Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana (PMFBY):

• Objective: Provides insurance against crop losses due to natural disasters.
• Impact: Reduces financial burden on farmers during adverse climatic conditions.

2. Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchai Yojana (PMKSY):

• Objective: Promotes efficient use of water resources and expands micro-irrigation coverage.
• Tagline: “Per Drop More Crop.”

3. Soil Health Card Scheme:

• Objective: Monitors soil health and promotes balanced use of fertilizers.
• Achievement: Over 23 crore soil health cards distributed by 2022.

4. e-NAM (National Agricultural Market):

• Objective: Creates a unified online market for agricultural commodities to ensure fair pricing.

5. Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana (RKVY):

• Objective: Provides financial assistance to States to invest in agriculture and allied sectors based on local needs.

6. Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY):

• Objective: Promotes organic farming and sustainable agriculture practices.

7. Operation Green:

• Objective: Stabilizes the supply and price of tomato, onion, and potato (TOP) crops.

8. Kisan Credit Card (KCC):

• Objective: Ensures timely and affordable credit to farmers for crop production and allied activities.

Illustrations

1. Water Management:
   • Example: Farmers in Gujarat benefitting from PMKSY’s micro-irrigation systems, reducing water consumption by up to 40%.
2. Crop Insurance:
   • Example: PMFBY has helped thousands of farmers in Maharashtra recover losses due to floods in 2021.
3. Market Access:
   • Farmers in Madhya Pradesh using e-NAM have seen better prices for wheat and soybean compared to traditional markets.

Conclusion

Indian agriculture is at a critical juncture, facing numerous challenges but also opportunities for growth. By addressing systemic issues through modern techniques, better infrastructure, and supportive policies, the sector can achieve sustainable development. The government’s initiatives like PMFBY, PMKSY, and e-NAM are steps in the right direction but need effective implementation and increased reach. Collaborative efforts between the Centre, States, and farmers are key to transforming Indian agriculture into a resilient and prosperous sector.

Difference Between Constitution and Constitutionalism

Constitution:

• A constitution is a written document or a set of fundamental principles that outline the framework of government, its powers, and the rights of citizens.
• It is a static legal document, detailing the structure and functioning of the state.
• Example: The Indian Constitution is the longest written constitution in the world, containing provisions about fundamental rights, directive principles, and the distribution of power among the executive, legislature, and judiciary.

Constitutionalism:

• Constitutionalism is the practice of limiting government powers through laws, ensuring accountability, and protecting individual freedoms.
• It emphasizes the spirit of the constitution—ensuring a balance between authority and liberty.
• Example: A country may have a written constitution but lack constitutionalism if its government exercises unchecked power (e.g., in dictatorships).

In essence:

• The constitution provides the rules, while constitutionalism ensures the rules are applied to safeguard democracy and individual rights.

Doctrine of Basic Structure

Origin of the Doctrine

• The Basic Structure Doctrine was introduced by the Supreme Court of India in the Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala (1973) case.
• It asserts that certain fundamental features of the Constitution cannot be amended by Parliament, even under Article 368 (the amendment provision).

Key Features of Basic Structure Doctrine

• Ensures that the essential character of the Constitution is preserved.
• Balances the power of Parliament to amend the Constitution with the need to protect its core values.

Elements of the Basic Structure

While the Supreme Court has not provided an exhaustive list, the following are commonly considered part of the basic structure:

1. Supremacy of the Constitution
2. Rule of Law
3. Separation of Powers
4. Judicial Review
5. Federalism
6. Sovereign, Democratic, and Republican nature of the polity
7. Secularism
8. Fundamental Rights

Significance of the Basic Structure Doctrine

1. Protection Against Arbitrary Amendments:
   • Prevents Parliament from using its amending power to dilute the Constitution’s core principles.
2. Guardian of Democracy:
   • Ensures that essential democratic ideals such as judicial independence, federalism, and fundamental rights remain intact.
3. Check on Majoritarianism:
   • Safeguards minority rights and prevents authoritarian tendencies in a parliamentary majority.
4. Preservation of Individual Liberties:
   • Ensures that amendments do not undermine fundamental rights like equality, freedom, and dignity.

Criticism of the Doctrine

1. Lack of Clarity:
   • The basic structure is not clearly defined, leading to subjective interpretations by the judiciary.
2. Judicial Overreach:
   • Critics argue that the doctrine gives excessive power to the judiciary, enabling it to override constitutional amendments passed by elected representatives.
3. Conflict with Parliamentary Sovereignty:
   • Some view the doctrine as limiting the legitimate powers of Parliament to adapt the Constitution to changing times.
4. Ambiguity in Scope:
   • What constitutes the “basic structure” can vary with different judicial interpretations, leading to potential inconsistencies.

Landmark Cases Related to Basic Structure

1. Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala (1973):
   • Established the doctrine of basic structure.
   • Held that Parliament cannot alter the Constitution’s core principles.
2. Indira Gandhi v. Raj Narain (1975):
   • Struck down the 39th Constitutional Amendment, which attempted to put the election of the Prime Minister beyond judicial scrutiny, as violating the basic structure.
3. Minerva Mills v. Union of India (1980):
   • Reinforced the basic structure doctrine by striking down amendments that curtailed judicial review and diluted the balance between Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles.
4. S.R. Bommai v. Union of India (1994):
   • Declared federalism and secularism as part of the basic structure.

Illustrations

1. Protection of Democracy:
   • In Indira Gandhi’s Emergency period, attempts to curtail judicial review were blocked using the basic structure doctrine.
2. Federalism:
   • In the case of state disputes, the judiciary has upheld federalism as a basic feature, ensuring balanced power-sharing.

Conclusion

The distinction between Constitution and Constitutionalism reflects the difference between having a set of rules and ensuring that those rules are applied in a fair, democratic manner. The Basic Structure Doctrine, while not explicitly mentioned in the Constitution, has become a cornerstone of Indian democracy by preventing arbitrary amendments and protecting the Constitution’s core values.

However, its subjective interpretation and the judiciary’s dominant role call for careful balance to respect both judicial independence and parliamentary sovereignty. The doctrine underscores the importance of safeguarding democracy while allowing flexibility for constitutional evolution.

Indian politics has historically been influenced by ascriptive factors such as caste, religion, and regional identities. However, in recent years, there has been a growing emphasis on development politics, focusing on economic growth, infrastructure, education, and healthcare. This shift is evident, but its extent varies across regions, including Bihar.

Understanding Development Politics and Ascriptive Politics

1. Development Politics:
   • Focuses on policies aimed at improving the quality of life, such as better roads, schools, healthcare, and economic opportunities.
   • Promotes voter engagement based on governance performance.
2. Ascriptive Politics:
   • Based on fixed identities like caste, religion, or language.
   • Appeals to community loyalties rather than governance or policy outcomes.

Indian Politics Today: The Shift Toward Development

Evidence of Development Politics

• National-Level Trends:
  • Successive elections have seen political parties emphasize developmental schemes like Ujjwala Yojana, PM Awas Yojana, and infrastructure projects.
  • The ‘double-engine government’ narrative (state and center working together) highlights developmental promises.
• Technological Outreach:
  • Political campaigns now focus on reaching voters through digital platforms, often highlighting governance achievements over caste-based appeals.

Persistence of Ascriptive Politics

• Caste and Religion in Electoral Campaigns:
  • Many political parties continue to field candidates based on caste calculations.
  • Communal narratives are sometimes used to polarize voters.

Bihar: A Case Study

Bihar provides a unique lens to examine the balance between development and ascriptive politics.

Transition Toward Development Politics

1. Governance Reforms:
   • Post-2005, the Nitish Kumar-led government emphasized infrastructure development, better law and order, and educational initiatives.
   • Projects like the Mukhyamantri Gramin Sadak Yojana and Bicycle Distribution Scheme for Girls reflect a focus on governance.
2. Development Narratives in Elections:
   • In the 2020 Bihar Assembly Elections, alliances emphasized job creation, economic growth, and healthcare reforms.
   • Parties like BJP-JD(U) campaigned on infrastructure and welfare achievements.

Persistence of Ascriptive Politics

1. Caste-Based Alliances:
   • Political alliances like Mahagathbandhan (Grand Alliance) were strategically formed based on caste considerations.
   • Voters often align with candidates from their own caste group, especially in rural Bihar.
2. Caste Dynamics in Political Leadership:
   • Despite development narratives, leadership selection and ministerial portfolios often reflect caste balancing.

Illustrations

1. Development Successes:
   • Law and Order: Bihar saw significant improvement in law and order post-2005, which became a key electoral plank.
   • Infrastructure Growth: Road connectivity improved substantially, fostering economic opportunities.
2. Caste Influence:
   • The dominance of communities like Yadavs, Kurmis, and Dalits in specific regions continues to influence candidate selection.
   • Political leaders still appeal to caste loyalties during campaign rallies.

Critical Analysis

• Development as a Growing Focus:
  • There is an undeniable shift toward development politics, driven by voter aspirations for better living standards.
  • Governance successes are increasingly used as political capital.
• Ascriptive Politics Remains Strong:
  • Deep-rooted caste and religious identities remain significant in voter behavior, especially in rural and less developed areas.
  • Political parties often combine development narratives with ascriptive appeals for broader voter reach.

Conclusion

Indian politics is gradually shifting toward development politics, as seen in Bihar’s emphasis on governance reforms and infrastructure growth. However, ascriptive politics continues to play a pivotal role, especially in candidate selection and voter mobilization.

To fully embrace development politics, it is crucial for both political leaders and voters to prioritize governance and performance over identity-based affiliations. The balance between these two paradigms will shape the future of democracy in India.

International terrorism refers to acts of violence or threats of violence carried out by individuals, groups, or states across national borders with the intent to create fear, achieve political objectives, or disrupt international peace and security. Unlike domestic terrorism, it transcends national boundaries in terms of its perpetrators, targets, or effects.

Key Characteristics:

• Targets can include civilians, government institutions, and infrastructure.
• Often seeks media attention to amplify its impact.
• Motivations range from political, ideological, and religious to economic grievances.
• Common examples include the activities of groups like ISIS, Al-Qaeda, and cross-border terrorism in regions like South Asia.

The International Community’s Fight Against Terrorism

Global collaboration is critical to countering international terrorism as it affects multiple nations and requires a unified approach.

Key Strategies:

1. Military Interventions:
   • Nations and coalitions often deploy military forces to combat terrorist groups.
   • Example: NATO’s military operations in Afghanistan aimed at dismantling Al-Qaeda and the Taliban.
2. Intelligence Sharing:
   • Collaborative intelligence-sharing mechanisms help detect and prevent attacks.
   • Example: The Five Eyes Alliance (USA, UK, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand).
3. Financial Countermeasures:
   • Blocking funding for terrorist organizations through stricter financial regulations.
   • Example: The Financial Action Task Force (FATF) identifies and sanctions nations that enable terrorism financing.
4. Preventive Measures:
   • Programs to counter radicalization and recruitment, especially online.
   • Example: The European Union’s Radicalisation Awareness Network (RAN).
5. Regional Cooperation:
   • Regional organizations like OSCE (Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe) and ASEAN work on tailored strategies to address terrorism in their regions.

The Role of the United Nations

The United Nations (UN) plays a pivotal role in coordinating global efforts against terrorism.

Major Contributions:

1. Legal Frameworks:
   • UN Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy (2006): A comprehensive approach to address terrorism’s causes, prevent its spread, and ensure respect for human rights.
   • UN Security Council Resolutions:
     • Resolution 1373 (2001): Obligates member states to prevent terrorism financing and support.
     • Resolution 2396 (2017): Focuses on returning foreign terrorist fighters.
2. Capacity Building:
   • Through organizations like the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), the UN provides technical assistance to countries for strengthening their legal systems and border controls.
3. Countering Violent Extremism (CVE):
   • The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) works to address conditions that lead to extremism, such as poverty and lack of education.
4. Human Rights Focus:
   • The Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) ensures that counterterrorism measures respect international human rights norms.
5. UN Agencies and Programs:
   • UN Counter-Terrorism Committee Executive Directorate (CTED): Monitors and promotes member states’ implementation of counterterrorism measures.
   • International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO): Works on aviation security against terrorist threats.

Illustrations of Counterterrorism Efforts

1. Operation Inherent Resolve (2014):
   • A US-led coalition effort to dismantle ISIS in Iraq and Syria.
   • Achieved significant territorial losses for ISIS, although sleeper cells remain active.
2. NATO’s Role:
   • NATO contributes through military missions, intelligence sharing, and training programs in conflict zones.
   • Example: Training Afghan forces to counter the Taliban and Al-Qaeda.
3. Global Efforts Against Online Radicalization:
   • Organizations like OSCE work with tech companies to remove extremist content from social media platforms and prevent recruitment.

Conclusion

International terrorism remains a pressing challenge, requiring a coordinated global approach. The international community combats it through military, legal, financial, and preventive measures.

The United Nations, through its frameworks and agencies, plays a central role in addressing this menace by fostering international cooperation, building capacities, and ensuring counterterrorism efforts respect human rights. Continued collaboration among nations and organizations will be key to creating a safer and more secure world.

The “Two Plus Two Dialogue” refers to a strategic framework where the foreign and defense ministers of two countries meet to discuss and align their perspectives on security, defense, and foreign policy issues. This format enhances collaboration on strategic and security matters while promoting closer bilateral ties.

For India and the USA, this dialogue involves:

• India: External Affairs Minister and Defense Minister.
• USA: Secretary of State and Secretary of Defense.

The dialogue is part of the growing strategic partnership between India and the USA.

India-USA “Two Plus Two Dialogue”

The India-USA “Two Plus Two Dialogue” started in September 2018, focusing on strengthening the partnership in areas such as:

1. Defense Cooperation: Enhancing interoperability through joint exercises and defense agreements.
2. Maritime Security: Collaboration in the Indo-Pacific to ensure freedom of navigation.
3. Counterterrorism: Sharing intelligence and resources to counter global terrorism.
4. Technology Sharing: Facilitating technology transfer and collaboration in cutting-edge defense systems.

Key Agreements Signed

• COMCASA (Communications Compatibility and Security Agreement): Enables secure communication between Indian and US forces.
• BECA (Basic Exchange and Cooperation Agreement): Facilitates the sharing of geospatial intelligence.

How Does This Impact India-Iran Relations?

India’s relations with Iran are significant due to energy imports, connectivity projects like the Chabahar Port, and shared interests in regional stability. However, the growing India-USA partnership, especially through mechanisms like the “Two Plus Two Dialogue,” sometimes creates friction in India-Iran relations due to the USA’s policies on Iran.

Key Points of Concern

1. US Sanctions on Iran:
   • The USA’s strict sanctions on Iran have pressured India to reduce oil imports from Iran, affecting the bilateral energy trade.
   • Despite this, India continues to pursue projects like the Chabahar Port, critical for access to Afghanistan and Central Asia.
2. Balancing Act:
   • India must carefully balance its strategic ties with the USA while maintaining its long-standing relationship with Iran.
   • The “Two Plus Two Dialogue” often addresses such complexities, ensuring that India’s strategic autonomy is respected.
3. Regional Stability:
   • The USA’s stance on Iran influences regional stability. India, through initiatives like the Chabahar Port, contributes to stability and connectivity in the region, balancing its commitments to both nations.

Illustrations of Impact

• Chabahar Port Development:
  • While the USA generally opposes investments in Iran, it has supported India’s Chabahar project, recognizing its strategic importance in Afghanistan. This reflects the fine line India walks between its partnerships with both nations.
• Oil Imports:
  • In 2018-19, India was one of the largest importers of Iranian crude oil. After US sanctions tightened, India had to cut these imports significantly, demonstrating the direct impact of US policies on India-Iran trade.

Conclusion

The “Two Plus Two Dialogue” between India and the USA strengthens their strategic partnership but also brings challenges in managing India’s relations with Iran. India’s approach has been to:

• Emphasize strategic autonomy, ensuring decisions serve its national interests.
• Promote regional stability and connectivity through initiatives like the Chabahar Port.
• Balance its ties with the USA and Iran, ensuring long-term benefits for its energy security and geopolitical interests.