Model Answer

India’s Three-Stage Nuclear Power Program, proposed by Dr. Homi Bhabha in 1954, aims to harness the country’s indigenous nuclear resources, particularly its abundant Thorium reserves, alongside modest Uranium supplies. The program consists of three stages:

1. Stage I – Pressurized Heavy Water Reactors (PHWR): The first stage focuses on the use of PHWRs, with the first reactor starting operations in Rajasthan in 1973. In December 2023, India’s largest indigenously developed 700-MWe PHWR achieved criticality in Kakrapar, Gujarat. Currently, the Nuclear Power Corporation of India (NPCIL) operates 24 reactors, contributing 8,180 MWe to the national grid.
2. Stage II – Fast Breeder Reactors (FBR): In 2003, BHAVINI was established to oversee the development of the Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor (PFBR). By March 2024, the PFBR at Kalpakkam, Tamil Nadu, marked a significant milestone by commencing ‘core loading’, advancing the country’s move towards efficient nuclear energy production.
3. Stage III – Advanced Reactors: The third stage involves the development of reactors that use Thorium as fuel. The Kamini reactor, located in BARC, is the only reactor worldwide using U-233 as fuel. Additionally, the Advanced Heavy Water Reactor (AHWR) is being developed, with a 300 MWe AHWR300-LEU designed as a technology demonstrator for Thorium utilization.

Challenges in Implementation

Despite the progress, several challenges hinder the smooth execution of the program:

1. Nuclear Fuel Availability: Limited domestic uranium resources and its low quality, sourced primarily from Jharkhand and Andhra Pradesh, pose significant hurdles in fuel supply.
2. Technological Delays in Stage II: The commissioning of the PFBR has faced delays due to technical difficulties and cost overruns, with the project expected to be completed by 2010 but delayed by over a decade.
3. Third Stage Roadblocks: The realization of the third stage remains distant due to challenges in recycling U-233, crucial for a sustainable thorium-U-233 fuel cycle.
4. Public Opposition: Concerns regarding safety, environment, and livelihood have led to delays, such as the 35-year delay in building reactors at Kudankulam due to public protests.
5. Competition from Renewable Energy: The rising popularity and decreasing cost of renewable energy sources, such as solar and wind, have diverted attention from nuclear energy.

In conclusion, while significant progress has been made, India’s Three-Stage Nuclear Power Program still faces substantial challenges that need to be addressed for its long-term success and energy security.