Causes of Greenland Ice Sheet Mass Reduction

• Increased Surface Melting: Rising Arctic temperatures have intensified surface melting across Greenland, leading to significant ice mass loss.
• Iceberg Calving: The detachment of large ice chunks from glaciers into the ocean has accelerated, contributing to the overall reduction in ice mass.

Recent Data

• Between 2002 and 2021, Greenland lost approximately 280 gigatons of ice annually, resulting in a global sea level rise of about 0.8 millimeters per year.

Potential Consequences

• Global Sea Level Rise: Continued ice loss from Greenland contributes to rising sea levels, threatening coastal communities worldwide.
• Disruption of Ocean Circulation: The influx of freshwater from melting ice can disrupt ocean currents, potentially leading to significant climate shifts.
• Local Ecosystem Changes: The melting ice alters habitats, affecting local wildlife and indigenous communities dependent on the Arctic environment.

Addressing these challenges requires global efforts to mitigate climate change and adapt to its impacts.

Factors Determining Ocean Salinity

Ocean salinity, measured in parts per thousand (ppt), depends on:

• Evaporation and Precipitation: High evaporation in subtropical regions like the Red Sea raises salinity to over 40 ppt, while heavy rainfall near the equator lowers salinity.
• River Discharge: Large rivers like the Amazon and Ganges reduce coastal salinity by adding freshwater.
• Temperature: Warm waters enhance evaporation, increasing salinity. For instance, the Mediterranean Sea has higher salinity due to its warm climate.
• Ocean Currents: Warm currents like the Gulf Stream transport saline waters, while cold currents dilute salinity.
• Melting and Freezing of Ice: Polar ice melt due to climate change, such as record Arctic sea ice loss in 2023, dilutes ocean salinity.

Spatial Distribution of Salinity

• High Salinity Areas: Subtropics (20°–30° latitudes) have high salinity due to low rainfall and high evaporation, e.g., the Atlantic Ocean (35–37 ppt).
• Low Salinity Areas: Equatorial waters and polar regions have lower salinity (30–34 ppt) due to heavy rainfall and ice melt.
• Regional Variations: Enclosed seas like the Dead Sea exhibit extremely high salinity (~330 ppt).

Rising global temperatures and changing rainfall patterns, highlighted in the IPCC 2023 report, are reshaping salinity distributions, impacting marine biodiversity and ocean circulation.

Factors Influencing the Location of Manufacturing Industries in India

1. Availability of Raw Materials
   • Industries like iron and steel are located near mineral-rich areas (e.g., Odisha, Jharkhand).
   • Agricultural industries thrive in Punjab and Maharashtra due to raw material proximity.
2. Power Supply
   • Reliable energy, including renewable sources, attracts industries. In 2023, India’s renewable energy capacity reached 175 GW, supporting green manufacturing initiatives.
3. Infrastructure and Connectivity
   • Proximity to highways, ports, and railways aids efficient logistics. For instance, the Mumbai Trans-Harbour Link is enhancing industrial connectivity.
4. Skilled Labor Availability
   • Cities like Bengaluru and Pune attract high-tech industries due to a skilled workforce.
   • India’s demographic dividend, with 67% of its population in the working-age group, boosts industrial growth.
5. Market Access
   • Urban centers like Delhi and Mumbai are preferred for industries needing proximity to consumers.
6. Government Policies
   • Initiatives like “Make in India” and PLI schemes encourage manufacturing in electronics and textiles.

Key Industrial Regions

• Mumbai-Pune: Hub for engineering, IT, and electronics.
• Ahmedabad-Vadodara: Focuses on textiles and petrochemicals.
• Delhi-NCR: Dominates electronics and consumer goods.
• Bengaluru: Leads in IT and aerospace manufacturing.
• Chennai: A growing automobile and electronics hub.

These regions combine favorable factors, driving India’s manufacturing growth.

Significance of the Basic Structure Doctrine

The Basic Structure Doctrine, introduced in the Kesavananda Bharati case (1973), ensures that essential features of the Constitution, such as democracy, secularism, and federalism, cannot be amended even by Parliament. This doctrine protects the Constitution from arbitrary amendments, especially during political or institutional crises.

Key Significance:

• Preservation of Constitutional Values: In 2023, debates on constitutional amendments like reservation policies highlighted the importance of safeguarding inclusivity and equality, pillars of the basic structure.
• Judiciary’s Role: The Supreme Court, through this doctrine, acts as the Constitution’s guardian. Landmark cases like NJAC (2015) reaffirmed judicial independence as part of the basic structure.

Implications of the Doctrine

Positive Impacts:

• Limits Legislative Overreach: By restricting Parliament’s amending power, it prevents erosion of constitutional principles, as seen during the Emergency (1975-77).
• Safeguards Democracy: In cases like SR Bommai (1994), it ensured federalism and the secular character of the state.

Challenges:

• Judicial Overreach: Critics argue it grants excessive power to unelected judges, impacting parliamentary sovereignty.
• Ambiguity: Lack of a clear definition of “basic structure” leads to subjective judicial interpretation.

In conclusion, the Basic Structure Doctrine balances constitutional stability and parliamentary flexibility, ensuring India’s democratic ethos remains intact amidst evolving challenges.

Comparing ‘Coming Together’ and ‘Holding Together’ Federations

Federations can emerge in two key ways: coming together and holding together, each rooted in different motivations and power dynamics.

Coming Together Federations

• Definition: Independent states unite voluntarily, pooling sovereignty to achieve shared goals like security, economic growth, or political stability.
• Features:
  • Power is balanced, ensuring strong state autonomy alongside a central government.
  • Often based on mutual compromise and collective interests.
• Examples:
  • United States: 13 colonies formed a federation in 1787 for defense and commerce.
  • Switzerland: Unified in 1848 for political stability; today, it boasts one of the highest per capita GDPs globally (~$94,000 in 2023).
  • European Union (partially federal): Talks on deeper integration, like common defense, show modern efforts of “coming together.”

Holding Together Federations

• Definition: A previously unified nation devolves power to regions to preserve unity amidst diversity or conflict.
• Features:
  • Central government retains more control; regional autonomy is varied.
• Examples:
  • India: Federalism accommodates linguistic and cultural diversity across 28 states and 8 union territories.
  • Belgium: Federalized to resolve ethnic tensions; recent debates over splitting show ongoing challenges.
  • Spain: Regional tensions, like Catalonia’s 2017 independence bid, highlight federalism’s role in managing unity.