Urbanisation  in  contemporary India is 68 % in rural and 38% in urban areas. the percentage  in rural areas is relatively less compared to similar economies even though rate of rural urban migration and expansion of cities are high,this is known as under urbanisation. Meanwhile India’s megacities are over urbanised where the population is well beyond  carrying capacity.

CHALLENGES OF URBANISATION

• overcrowding, housing shortage, formation of slums and overburdened infrastructure- According to the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs, the urban housing shortage in India was around 18.78 million units between 2012-27, with over 65 million people living in slums or informal settlements. overcrowded spaces tend to get diseases very fast thus a health and sanitation factor is also important.
• Environmental Impact of air pollution- severe air pollution primarily due to vehicular emissions, industrial activities, and construction projects. which eventually increase the carbon emissions.
• Inadequate Solid Waste Management: Indian cities struggle with the management of solid waste leading to piling garbage and health hazards.
• Water Scarcity and Poor Water Management: Due to increasing urbanization, population expansion, and groundwater depletion, many cities are experiencing severe water shortages.
  For instance, people in Chennai had to rely on water tankers and desalination facilities due to a serious water crisis in 2019.
• Urban Heat Island Effect and Loss of Green Spaces: The urban heat island effect, which raises temperatures and energy consumption, is a result of rapid urbanization and the loss of green spaces.
• transportation and traffic issues- inadequate publics transport system, increasing private vehicles have lead to traffic congestion,, which lengthens commutes and reduces productivity.

SOLUTIONS TO CREATE SUSTAINABLE AND LIVEABLE CITIES

• development of green spaces- Green space interventions nourish the city’s existing character, improve environmental conditions, promote outdoor recreational spaces and active lifestyles, and protect biodiversity by creating wildlife habitats.
• encouraging sustainable living practices- proper waste management, Implementing the “Sponge City” concept, which involves theintegration of permeable pavements, green roofs, rainwater gardens, and other water-absorbing features into urban landscapes.
• Popularizing smart city infrastructure—such as smart grids, intelligent traffic management systems, and Internet of Things-enabled public services—will increase productivity, lower carbon emissions, and improve the standard of living for locals.
• effective public transportation system-which eventually reduces the vehicular emissions and traffic commotion.
• There needs to be a multidimensional approach towards policy making involving the State ,cooperates and civil society and need to integrate sustainable urban planning, infrastructure development and social welfare activities. Some of the government initiated programmes related to urban areas- Smart cities, AMRUT Mission, Swatch Bharat mission-urban,Aspirational District Programme,Deendayal Antyodaya Yojana-National Urban Livelihoods Mission (DAY-NULM).
• Planning for the best possible use of urban land- All towns and cities included in the “Healthy Cities Programme” should tighten rules to make the most use of their planning area, or urban land. There must be regular review of town and country planning or urban and regional development acts.
• Enhanced Private Sector participation: The inclusion of private sector consultancies in urban planning and development is one way to improve the participation of the private sector in these processes.

 money supply is the total stock of money that is in circulation in an economy on any specific day.

Now there are essentially three main sources of money supply in our economy. They are the produces of the money and are responsible for its distribution in the economy. These are

1. The government who produces all the coins and the one rupee notes
2. The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) which issues all the paper currency
3. And commercial banks as they create the credit as per the demand deposits

There is no one way to calculate the money supply in our economy. Instead, the Reserve Bank of India has developed four alternative measures of money supply in India. These four alternative measures of money supply are labelled M1, M2, M3 and M4. The RBI will collect data and calculate and publish figures of all the four measures.

M1 (Narrow Money)

M1 includes all the currency notes being held by the public on any given day. It also includes all the demand deposits with all the banks in the country, both savings as well as current account deposits. It also includes all the other deposits of the banks kept with the RBI. So M1 = CC + DD + Other Deposits

M2

M2, also narrow money, includes all the inclusions of M1 and additionally also includes the saving deposits of the post office banks. So M2 = M1 + Savings Deposits of Post Office Savings

M3 (Broad Money)

M3 consists of all currency notes held by the public, all demand deposits with the bank, deposits of all the banks with the RBI and the net Time Deposits of all the banks in the country. So M3 = M1 + time deposits of banks.

M4

M4 is the widest measure of money supply that the RBI uses. It includes all the aspects of M3 and also includes the savings of the post office banks of the country. It is the least liquid measure of all of them. M4 = M3 + Post office savings