The Santhal Hul, also known as the Sonthal Rebellion or Santhal Rebellion, was a significant uprising that took place in 1855-1856 in the eastern Indian state of Bihar and parts of present-day Jharkhand, Odisha, and West Bengal. While it is often referred to as an anti-British revolt, it was actually a rebellion against the exploitative policies and practices of both the British colonial government and the local zamindars (feudal lords) who were collaborating with the British.

1. The Santhals, a tribal community, had traditionally lived in the region for centuries, practicing shifting cultivation and subsistence farming. However, with the arrival of the British, their lands were forcibly taken away and given to the zamindars, who then collected taxes from the Santhals. The British East India Company also imposed taxes on the Santhals, further exacerbating their economic hardships.
2. The Santhals, who were already struggling to survive, felt that they were being exploited by both the British and the zamindars. They resented the forced labor, land grabs, and exorbitant taxes imposed on them. The British, on the other hand, saw the Santhals as ” primitives” and “uncivilized,” and believed that they needed to be “civilized” and brought under their control.
3. The spark that ignited the rebellion was the death of a Santhal leader named Tilka Manjhi’s daughter-in-law at the hands of a British officer. This incident led to widespread outrage among the Santhals, who saw it as an example of British brutality. They decided to take up arms against both the British and the zamindars.
4. The rebellion was led by Tilka Manjhi’s son, Birsa Munda, who was only 22 years old at the time. He rallied thousands of Santhals and launched a series of attacks on British army posts, police stations, and estates belonging to the zamindars. The rebels also destroyed crops and infrastructure built by the British.
5. The British responded with force, and the rebellion was brutally suppressed. Many Santhals were killed or injured, and thousands were imprisoned or forced to flee into hiding. Birsa Munda was captured and executed in 1895.
6. However, the Santhal Hul was not just an anti-British revolt; it was also a resistance against local exploitation by the zamindars. The rebellion highlighted the deep-seated grievances of the Santhals against both colonialism and feudalism. It also marked a turning point in their struggle for self-determination and their fight against economic exploitation.
7. In many ways, the Santhal Hul can be seen as a precursor to later movements for tribal rights and self-rule in India. It showed that even marginalized communities could organize themselves and resist oppression when pushed to the limits. The rebellion also inspired other tribal communities in India to challenge colonialism and demand their rights.

Industrial disasters are serious events that involve hazardous materials and that can have hazardous consequences both for the surrounding population and environment. Industrial accidents, also known as technological disasters, are non-natural calamities.

Different types of industrial disasters

• Explosion: The shockwave-linked explosion can kill people but usually the indirect effects of collapsing buildings, flying glass, and debris cause far more loss of life and severe injuries. E.g.: the Chernobyl Explosion in Russia and, Halifax explosion in Canada.
• Toxic/Chemical release: Sudden releases of toxic vapors have the potential to cause death and severe injuries several miles from the release point. They are carried by water and air. Their release into public sewage systems, rivers, canals, and other water courses, either directly or through contaminated water used in firefighting can result in a serious threat to the public. E.g.: Bhopal Gas Tragedy, 1984.
• Industrial Fires: This is the most frequent of the hazards, however, the consequences are generally on essential services like power and instrumentation. The effect of fire on people usually takes the form of skin burns and is usually dependent on the exposure time and the intensity of the heat. Fire can also produce toxic fumes like Acrolein, Carbon monoxide, and Cyanides. E.g., Mundka fire incidents in New Delhi.

The legal framework for risk reduction of such events is discussed as follows:

• The risk reduction framework includes Chemical Risk Assessment, Process Safety Management, Safety Audits, Emergency Planning, Training, and public awareness.
• The National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) of India has already come out with guidelines on Chemical Disaster Management. It is also working on revamping CIFs (Chief Inspectorate of Factories) to strengthen chemical safety in India.
• The National Action Plan on Chemical Industrial Disaster Management (NAP-CIDM), has been finalized which will act as the roadmap for chemical disaster management in India.
• Through CAPP, the United Nations Environment Programme aims to promote chemical accident prevention and preparedness, in emerging economies and developing countries that need support to address the increased risks of chemical accidents.
• The OECD’s Program on Chemical Accidents aims to share experiences amongst governments and other stakeholders and recommends policy options for enhancing the prevention of, preparedness for, and response to chemical accidents.
• The 1992 United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) Convention on the Transboundary Effects of Industrial Accidents is designed to protect people and the environment against the devastating effects of industrial accidents including prevention of industrial accidents triggered by natural disasters, such as floods, landslides or earthquakes.
• Guidelines on International Health Regulations and the public health management of chemical incidents by WHO. Various acts have been brought such as Factories Act 1948, Environment Protection Act 1986, Public Liability Insurance Act 1991, Explosives Act 1884, etc for dealing with industrial disasters in India.

Besides, multi-stakeholder participation, proactive awareness campaigns, shared best practices and effective implementation of policy is key to addressing industrial disasters. Under UNISDR disaster risk, the recent “Bangkok Principles” open up opportunities for collaboration between all relevant sectors and stakeholders in disaster-affected areas.

After being declared extinct in 1952, Cheetahs are being reintroduced in India under Project Cheetah, the world’s first inter-continental large wild carnivore translocation project.
From the historical ranges where Cheetahs were once found, following 10 potential sites from the states of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Chhattisgarh are found to be suitable:

• Sanjay-Dubri Tiger Reserve and Guru Ghasidas National Park: Cheetahs were last observed in this region but presently prey-density is low.
• Kuno-Palpur region: High potential as the region is already restored for introducing the Asiatic lions. Nauradehi WLS, MP: It has reasonable prey-density.
• Kaimur WLS, UP and Bagdara WLS, MP: Continuous region with reasonable prey-density but much land is under agriculture.
• Shahgarh landscape of Jaisalmer, Rajasthan: It is suitable because the area is well fenced along the international border.
• Banni grasslands and Kachchh WLS, Gujarat: Potential habitat but prey base needs to be developed.
• Desert National Park in Jaisalmer, Rajasthan: It is large and has a good number of prey but is the last stronghold for the great Indian bustard.

Significance of reintroduction of Cheetahs in India:

• Establish viable cheetah metapopulation in India: It will re-establish cheetah’s functional role as a top predator, restoring historic evolutionary balance and positive impacts like:
  • Better management and restoration of wildlife habitat (grasslands, scrublands and open forest ecosystems).
  • Conservation of cheetah’s prey and sympatric endangered species.
  • Top-down effect of a large predator that enhances and maintains the diversity in lower trophic levels of the ecosystems.
• Resource mobilization: Cheetah as a charismatic flagship and umbrella species can help to garner resources for restoring open forest and ecosystem services like soil moisture conservation, water security, etc.
• Enhance local community livelihoods through eco-development and eco-tourism prospects.

Challenges regarding relocation

• Exaggerated and unfeasible conservation claims: At low numbers, the introduced cheetahs might not be able to effectively impact the ecosystem functions.
• 750 sq-km Kuno national park could limit their movement: Unlike other large cats, free- ranging cheetahs are characterised by disproportionately large home ranges and very low population densities.
  • Due to their homing instincts, diurnal nature and large home ranges, cheetahs are likely to stray outside of territory and come in contact with humans.
  • Cheetahs could face attacks from or be forced to compete for food with aggressive predators such as tigers and leopards.
• Difficulties in adaptation: African Cheetahs may find it difficult to adapt to India’s climatic conditions.
• Risk of diseases: There is a risk of disease spread to both the individual animals that are being introduced and to the wildlife species which inhabit the site.
• Displacement of local communities: Several villages have been relocated for the project and introducing more Cheetahs may require more relocation.

The reintroduction of apex carnivores should be seen as “ecosystem conservation” rather than merely as species conservation. However, a thorough disease screening process should be followed, along with counselling and training of local communities.