Federalism is a system of government where power is divided between a central authority and various constituent units of the country. There are two types of federations:

– Coming Together Federation: independent states coming together on their own to form bigger unit, so that by pooling sovereignty and retaining identity they can increase their security. (e.g., USA, Switzerland, Australia).
– Holding Together Federation: A large country decides to divides it power between constituent states and the national government (e.g., India, Spain, Belgium).

Key characteristics include:

– Coming Together Federations: all constituent states have equal power and are strong vis à vis the federal government..
– Holding Together Federations: central government tends to be more powerful vis à vis the states.

The objectives of federalism are:

– Safeguard and promote national unity.
– Balance unity and diversity.

Both forms of federalism fulfill these requirements. The choice of government depends on the historical context in which the federation was formed. An ideal federal system requires mutual trust, agreement to live together, and balance between central authority and constituent units.

Introduction

Seismic waves, or earthquake waves, are mechanical waves formed by an earthquake’s acoustic energy that travels through the Earth or other planetary bodies.

There are two broad classes of seismic waves: Body waves and Surface waves.

Types of Earthquake Waves

1. Body Waves: Travel within the Earth’s body. There are two types:
– P Waves (Primary): Fastest seismic waves, traveling at 5 km/s through the Earth’s crust. Can travel through solids, liquids, and gases.
– S Waves (Secondary): Slower than P waves, traveling at half their speed. Can only travel through rocks.
2. Surface Waves: Travel on the Earth’s surface. There are two types:
– Love Waves: Cause horizontal shifting of the Earth during an earthquake.
– Rayleigh Waves: Travel near the surface, including both longitudinal and transverse motions.

Shadow Zone

The seismic shadow zone is the area where seismographs cannot detect an earthquake after the waves have passed through the Earth.

By tracking seismic waves, scientists have learned what makes up the planet’s interior. P-waves slow down at the mantle-core boundary, so we know the outer core is less rigid than the mantle. S-waves disappear at the mantle-core boundary, so the outer core is liquid.

Artificial intelligence (AI), in its broadest sense, is intelligence exhibited by machines, particularly computer systems. It is a field of research in computer science that develops and studies methods and software that enable machines to perceive their environment and use learning and intelligence to take actions that maximize their chances of achieving defined goals. Such machines may be called AIs.

The Mystery of Jars arises with the question that What purpose these stone jars served and who constructed them remains a mystery. Due to their size and the nearby bones, some archaeologists think the urns were prehistoric burial sites for an ancient civilization that travelled along a forgotten overland trade route between the Mekong River and the Gulf of Tonkin.