According to the estimates of UNESCAP, 29.4 percent of India’s urban population lived in slums. This proportion is even higher in metropolitan cities like Kolkata, Mumbai etc. Factors responsible for the formation and proliferation of slums in India include: Growth rate of population (urbanization): The growth rate of the Indian population is very high and this growth rate is much higher in the urban areas because of the migration of large numbers of people from rural to urban. Poor housing planning: Lack of affordable low cost housing and poor planning by the government encourages the supply side of slums. Regional imbalances in development: Regional imbalance in development creates rural to urban migration, thus increasing the overall urban population density, which pressurizes the urban poor to move into slums. Limited access to financial resources: Slum dwellers typically inhabit marginal locations such as dumping grounds mainly due to the low purchasing power of slum dwellers in formal land markets when compared with high-income groups. Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (Urban): The Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana-Urban (PMAY-U) the urban housing for all mission was designed to address the housing requirements of the Indian urban poor and slum dwellers through five programme verticals, as shown in the figure:

• The BLC, CLSS, and AHP target low-income households who have a relatively secure and regular flow of income.
• In contrast, the ISSR and ARHC target very poor households unable to access housing through formal housing markets.

Need to revamp ISSR component of PM Awas Yojana (Urban) to address the issue of slums:

• Divergence in the sanctions under verticals: While the sanctioning of houses under the BLC and CLSS verticals has steadily grown, on the other hand, the sanctioning of houses under the ISSR stand at meagre 3.5%.
• Top to bottom approach: The policy impetus of the ISSR scheme flows from the top (government authorities) to the bottom (beneficiary) of the policy chain in which the policy intervention starts when slum dwellers and private players are approached for redevelopment by the authorities.
• Lengthy dispute resolution process: The scheme implementation process involves the active participation of agents such as government authorities, private landowners, private developers, and slum dwellers’ associations. As various interests are involved in the process, the time taken to resolve disagreements and conflicts leads to a higher gestation period for each project.
• Lack of interest by private players: The lack of interest shown by private players has been one of the reasons for the reduced uptake of the vertical. Unless private players find a specific project profitable and in line with their interests, the implementation gets stuck in the planning stage.

Lessons can be learned from the Jaga Mission (Odisha) to revamp the ISSR vertical of PMAY-U. Another is Community land trust, a long-term sustainable model focused on participatory and community-led processes, in which the land title is vested in a non-profit community trust and only improvement rights are granted to a homeowner. Thus, the land is cut out from speculative housing markets, providing the community members with long-term housing affordability, security, and community control of the neighbourhood.

Globalisation is a process of interconnectedness, interdependence and integration of economics and societies. It allows for religions, which were previously isolated from one another to have regular and unavoidable contact now. The interaction between globalisation and religion has brought new possibilities as given below:

• Religious tolerance: Globalisation brings a culture of pluralism, meaning religions with overlapping but distinctive ethics and interests interact with one another, thus leading to greater religious tolerance.
• Spreading religious ideas: Globalisation plays a tremendous role in providing a context for the current considerable revival and the resurgence of religion. Religions have spread and scattered on a global scale and are not relegated to the few countries where they began. Also, technology has intensified globalisation and religion has tremendously benefited from technological advancements.
• Active participation in international affairs: Religious communities such as the Roman Catholic Church, the World Council of Churches, etc. take part in international affairs. For ex. ISKCON, Khalsa aid members conducted a massive food relief effort in Hungary to provide fresh food and water for the students coming home from Ukraine.
• Spread of humanitarian values: Globalisation has helped to share many of the basic commitments as given by religious traditions, mainly peace, human dignity, and human equality, etc. through international organisations. For e.g., global political forums such as the United Nations (UN) etc. promote peace, conflict resolution through negotiation, mediation, and diplomacy.

In this way, globalization opens a new door for religion that enhances cooperation, tolerance and brings new opportunities and possibilities. But, on the other hand, this interaction between the globalisation and religion has emerging challenges as well which are given below:

• In this globalised world, consumerism, material prosperity and achievement has become the aim of life while inner peace is ignored, thus undermining religious ideas and perspectives.
• Since globalization brings world cultures, identities, and religions in direct contact with each other and makes everything hybrid, the competition and conflicts of religions constitutes a major challenge leading to social tensions.
• Also, globalization’s strict rationalism manifested in ideas like liberalism and secularism can be incompatible with the norms and the values of some religions.

Religion and globalisation share a strange and paradoxical, yet mutually reinforcing relationship. While some scholars may have dismissed religion as a primitive manifestation of superstition, thinking that the forces of globalization would lead to religion’s demise, but the effects of cultural exchange due to globalisation has led to proliferation of religion. Thus, it is necessary to minimise the challenges of religion and globalisation and bring the culture of peace and harmony.

Numismatics is the study and collection of coins, tokens, and other coin-like objects that people used as currencies throughout history. People over time used those currencies as mode of payments for goods and services as well as to settle debt.

Major numismatic stages in India:

• Ancient India coinage: The first documented coinage is deemed to have started with punch marked coins. This era included coins attributed to ‘Janapadas’ as well as the ‘Mauryan period. Symbols were punched on the coin with a separate punch.
• Dynastic coins: These coins relate to those of the Indo-Greeks, the Saka-Pallavas and the Kushans. Hellenistic traditions characterise the silver coins of the Indo-Greeks, with Greek gods and goddesses figuring prominently, apart from the portraits of the issuers.
  • This stage also includes coinage from the Gupta, Post-Gupta and South Indian Empires of Cholas, Cheras, Pandyas, Pallavas and Hoysalas, among others.
• Coins of Medieval period: With the emergence of Turkish Sultans of Delhi in the 12th century, existing motifs were gradually replaced by Islamic devices, largely calligraphy. The unit of account came to be consolidated and was referred to as the ‘tanka’ with the ‘jittals’ as the smaller value coins.
• During Vijayanagar Empire, coins were largely struck in gold and copper and most gold coins of the period bore a sacred image on the obverse and the royal legend on the reverse.
  • The system of tri-metallism created by Sher Shah Suri characterised the Mughal coinage. He issued silver coins called Rupiya, which remained largely unchanged till the early 20th century, gold coins called the Mohur and Copper coins called Dam.
• British India Coinage: Enactment of Coinage Act, 1835 led to uniform coinage with effigy of Prince Williams IV on the obverse and the value on the reverse in English and Persian. Coins after 1840 bore the portrait of Queen Victoria.
  • The Indian Coinage Act, 1906 governed the establishment of mints as well as the coins that will be issued along with standards.
• Coins of modern India: The First Rupee coin of the Indian republic was minted in 1950. Other denominations of coins included the Anna series. In 1957, India shifted to the decimal system.

Significance of numismatic study in understanding history:

• Sources of historical information through inscription: Coins are part of archaeological sources and are as important as the inscription in history. They confirm the information derived from literature.
• Help in identification of connections and key events: Tracing ancient Indian coins showcases the marketplaces along the Silk Road, the trade route that connected the East and West; conquerors and their traveling mints; wars; and lost kingdoms.
• Key sources for chronological confirmation: Coins with dates are very valuable for the framework of Indian chronology. For instance, coins are almost our sole evidence with regard to the Indo Scythian and Indo Bactrian Kings.
• Placing the extent and influence of empires: The inscription on the coin indicates territory over which the rulers ruled. The discovery of the same kind of coins at different places helps in fixing the coverage of various kingdoms in ancient India.

Thus, the numismatic study of India not only provides an insight into political events, extent, and personalities, but also into social, economic, and cultural life of people in those times.