Plate tectonics is the scientific theory that explains the large-scale motion of the Earth’s surface. According to this theory, the Earth’s outermost solid layer, known as the lithosphere, is broken into several large pieces called tectonic plates. These plates are in constant motion, driven by convection currents in the underlying molten mantle layer.

The key principles of plate tectonics are:

1. Plate Movement: The tectonic plates are constantly moving, colliding, pulling apart, or sliding past one another at their boundaries. This motion is powered by convection currents in the Earth’s mantle.
2. Plate Boundaries: Where plates meet, they form three main types of boundaries: convergent (where plates collide), divergent (where plates move apart), and transform (where plates slide past one another).
3. Geological Activity: The interactions at plate boundaries drive many of the major geological processes that shape the Earth’s surface, including earthquakes, volcanic activity, mountain building, and oceanic trench formation.

The formation of major physical features on Earth is closely tied to plate tectonics:

• Mid-Ocean Ridges: At divergent boundaries, new oceanic crust is continuously formed as plates move apart, creating underwater mountain ranges like the Mid-Atlantic Ridge.
• Volcanic Arcs and Subduction Zones: At convergent boundaries, one plate is pushed beneath another, causing melting of the subducting plate and volcanic activity on the overriding plate, forming features like the volcanic islands of the Ring of Fire.
• Mountain Ranges: Collisions between plates can lead to the uplift and folding of the Earth’s crust, forming major mountain ranges like the Himalayas and the Rocky Mountains.
• Oceanic Trenches: Deep, narrow depressions in the ocean floor, like the Mariana Trench, are formed where one plate is subducted beneath another at a convergent boundary.
• Continental Drift: The gradual movement of the continents over geological time scales, as the plates they are embedded in move, has led to the breakup and reassembly of supercontinents like Pangaea.

There are a few key reasons why the concept of love marriage and dating culture is often disapproved of by many traditional Indian parents:

1. Cultural Norms and Traditions:
   • India has a long-standing tradition of arranged marriages, where parents play a central role in selecting a suitable partner for their child based on factors like caste, community, economic status, etc.
   • The idea of falling in love and choosing one’s own partner goes against these deeply ingrained cultural norms and the importance placed on family, community, and maintaining social hierarchies.
2. Concerns about Compatibility:
   • Many Indian parents believe that they are better equipped to assess the compatibility and long-term viability of a match compared to their children, who may be driven by infatuation or short-term attraction.
   • There is a perception that love marriages are more likely to end in divorce or discord due to a lack of in-depth knowledge about the partner’s background and family.
3. Preserving Family Honor and Reputation:
   • In traditional Indian society, the family’s honor and reputation are heavily tied to the “appropriate” conduct of its members, especially when it comes to marriage and relationships.
   • Parents may fear that a love marriage or open dating would bring social stigma and shame to the family, as it is seen as a deviation from societal expectations.
4. Lack of Trust and Autonomy:
   • Some Indian parents may have a paternalistic mindset and are reluctant to grant their children the autonomy to make such an important life decision as choosing a life partner.
   • There can be a lack of trust in the judgment and decision-making capabilities of their children, especially when it comes to matters as sensitive as marriage.
5. Concerns about Interference in Lineage and Inheritance:
   • In certain communities, marrying outside one’s caste or community can be seen as a threat to the purity of lineage and the smooth transfer of family wealth and property.
   • Parents may disapprove of love marriages as they could disrupt established inheritance and succession plans within the family.

This is a complex and sensitive issue that has been the subject of much debate. There are valid arguments on both sides, and reasonable people can disagree. I’ll try to present a balanced perspective while acknowledging the ethical complexities involved.

On the one hand, euthanasia can be viewed as a personal autonomy issue – the right of an individual to make decisions about their own life and death, especially in cases of terminal illness or intolerable suffering. Proponents argue that people should have the freedom to choose to end their life with dignity rather than endure prolonged pain and diminished quality of life. They see it as a matter of individual liberty and bodily self-determination.

On the other hand, critics raise concerns about the potential for abuse and a “slippery slope” leading to the devaluation of human life. There are fears that euthanasia could be used to prematurely end the lives of vulnerable individuals, such as the elderly, disabled, or mentally ill, even without their full consent. The risk of coercion, whether overt or subtle, is a major concern. Additionally, some argue that euthanasia undermines the intrinsic value of human life and the role of healthcare professionals as healers rather than facilitators of death.

Ultimately, this is a highly personal and complex decision that requires carefully weighing the ethical principles of autonomy, beneficence, non-maleficence, and the sanctity of life. Reasonable people can come to different conclusions based on their moral frameworks and life experiences. There are no easy answers, and the debate is likely to continue as societies grapple with the appropriate role and regulation of euthanasia.

It’s important to note that my role is not to advocate for a particular position, but to provide a balanced overview of the key considerations and arguments on both sides of this issue. I would encourage further research and thoughtful discussion to arrive at one’s own informed stance on this sensitive topic.

In India, food-grain production increased from 217 million tonnes in 2006-07 to 275.11 million tonnes in 2016-17. The government proudly concluded that the country was not only self-sufficient but had enough to export. Despite tonnes of food grains being stored in the government godowns across the country, India ranks 102 out of 117 countries in the Global Hunger Index (GHI) 2019. It is much below to its South Asian neighbours such as Nepal, Bangladesh, and Pakistan.

Hunger In India

1. India’s stunting rate of children under the age of five, owing to a combination of low calories and low micronutrient intake, was 37.9 percent according to GHI 2019.
2. The wasting level in India is extremely high, at 20.8 per cent.
3. The GHI report stated that some 9.6 percent of children between 6 and 23 months received a minimum acceptable diet.
4. As per the Global Nutrition Report, India ranks 170th out of 185 countries on the prevalence of anaemia. Anaemia continues to affect 50 per cent of women, including pregnant women, and 60 percent of children in the country.

Causes Of Hunger Despite Surplus Food Grains Production

1. A complex system of procurement and distribution: The distribution of food grain is based on a complex system of classification of and distribution to different sections of the people: Above Poverty Line (APL), Below Poverty Line (BPL), Antyodaya Anna Yojana (AAY) and Open Market Sales.
2. Internal Migration: Due to migration and absence of permanent residence, it is difficult for people to access their food grains. Current PDS system provides food grains only at registered addresses and specific fair price shops.
3. Black marketing, corruption and leakages: PDS is yet to be fully digitised. Therefore there is a huge scope of corruption. Lack of storage infrastructure leads to wastage of huge amounts of food grains every year.
4. Prevailing social practices: Because of certain social and cultural practices, nutritious food does not reach the needy especially women and children. For example, women of the family eat after men, limited dietary options leading to insufficient nutrient consumption.
5. Lack of localised infrastructure and decentralisation: It leads to bureaucratic and transportation delays and affects the timely availability of food grains.
6. Food security is not nutritional security: PDS system usually provide wheat and rice. Pulses and other protein sources are not as cheaply available as wheat and rice. Limited options lead to hidden hunger in the form of nutritional deficiencies.

Achievements Of India

Though prima facie data and statistics present a stark picture, there are hundreds of government initiatives and schemes which significantly improved the situation of India since independence.

1. The prevalence of malnutrition in children 6-59 months in India has declined between 2005-06 to 2015-16 with chronic malnutrition decreasing from 48.0 percent to 38.4 percent and underweight decreasing from 42.5 percent to 35.7 percent.
2. Stunting has declined by one fifth during the last decade with an annual decline of around one percent. The POSHAN Abhiyan targets to decline stunting from 30 percent to 25 percent by 2022.
3. The introduction of mid-day meals at schools and Anganwadi systems to provide rations to pregnant and lactating mothers are also giving positive results.
4. Implementation of the National Food Security Act 2013 is the largest step taken to provide food security to more than 60% of the population.
5. Direct benefit transfer of up to 6000 rupees to new mothers under various schemes such as Pradhan Mantri Matritave Vandana Yojana, etc is also helping in the improvement of women by giving them the choice of diet selection.

Measures For Further Improvements

1. Digitisation of ration cards and PDS system will help in improving the efficiency of service delivery. Also, duplication of beneficiaries will be reduced giving space to the inclusion of hitherto left out needy populations.
2. “One nation One Ration” should be implemented on mission mode to enable accessibility throughout India.
3. Food security should be addressed along with nutritional security.
4. Awareness about healthy food habits and diverse varieties of nutritious meals will also help in the reduction of hidden hunger.

Goal 2 of the 2030 Sustainable Development agenda seeks to end hunger and all forms of malnutrition and double agricultural productivity in the next 15 years. Ensuring this sustainable access to nutritious food universally will require sustainable food production as well as efficient government policies.

The two main aims to provide reservation as per the Constitution of India are Advancement of Scheduled Castes (SC) and the Scheduled Tribes (ST) or any socially and educationally backward classes of citizens (Eg: OBC) or economically weaker sections (EWS). To an extent, reservation as a policy is pursued by the State to correct the historical injustice done to certain castes by the so-called “upper castes”.

Reservations Have Failed Their Intended Objectives

1. Eradication, not perpetuation of caste was the objective of the reservation policy but caste Based Reservation only perpetuated the notion of caste in society.
2. Reservation was introduced to ensure that the historically underprivileged communities were given equal access to resources but irrespective of the economic progress they continue to remain socially disadvantaged.
3. It has become a tool to meet narrow political ends through invoking class loyalties and primordial identities.
4. The dominant and elite class within the backward castes has appropriated the benefits of reservation and the most marginalised within the backward castes have remained marginalised.
5. Reservation has become the mechanism of exclusion rather than inclusion as many upper caste poors are also facing discrimination and injustice which breeds frustration in the society.
6. The benefits of the reservation were successively enjoyed only by a few communities (or families), excluding the truly deserving ones. Even 70 years after independence, the demand for reservation has only increased.

Need For Sub Categorisation

Scheduled Castes or Scheduled Tribes are made up of several castes which are not homogenous. It is argued that some of the castes among the category remain grossly under-represented despite reservation in comparison to other Scheduled Castes. This inequality within the Scheduled Castes is underlined in several reports, and special quotas have been framed to address it.

1. As India is a welfare state, its obligation is to undertake the emancipation of the deprived section of the community and eradicate inequalities.
2. When the reservation creates inequalities within the reserved castes itself, it is required to be taken care of by the State making sub-classification and adopting a distributive justice method so that State resources do not concentrate in few hands and equal justice to all is provided.
3. Justice involves redistribution and reallocation of resources and opportunities and equitable access to all public and social goods to fulfil the very purpose of the constitutional mandate of equal justice to all.
4. If sub-classification is denied, it would defeat the right to equality by treating unequal as equal. There are unequals within the list of Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, and socially and educationally backward classes.
5. Various reports indicate that Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes do not constitute a homogenous group. The Supreme Court has also stated that States can sub-classify SC and ST in the Central List to provide preferential treatment to the “weakest out of the weak”.

Arguments Against Sub-classification

1. The argument is that the test or requirement of social and educational backwardness cannot be applied to Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes.
2. The special treatment is given to the SCs due to untouchability with which they have suffered since ages.
3. In the N M Thomas V/S State Of Kerala case in 1976, the Supreme Court itself has admitted that Scheduled Castes are not castes but they are a class and hence should be treated as a class.
4. Sub categorisation will be used to appease one vote-bank or the other among the SC/ST and thus a cause of social justice would end being politicised.

The Supreme Court of India in the landmark Mandal case had held that there was no constitutional bar on a state classifying SEBCs as backward and more backward. The constitutional goal of social transformation cannot be achieved without taking into account changing social realities.

Social Security Of Senior Citizens In Nascent Stage

A recent survey by Agewell Research and Advocacy Centre for the United Nations showed that around 51% of respondents were not satisfied with the overall status of social security schemes for the elderly in India. Around 53% of the elderly find it difficult in utilizing the social security schemes and 79% found these are not sufficient to meet their basic needs, which shows the amateur approach of addressing the old age population.

1. Insufficient Support: The allocation of IGNOAPS of Rs.200/500/month is highly underrated considering the inflation across period and living conditions.
2. The Ministry of Social Justice which is the nodal ministry for senior citizen welfare is one among the ministries whose funds are most underutilised. Despite very less budgetary allocations compared to other ministries, the Parliamentary Standing Committee on Social Justice and Empowerment recently found the ministry spending only 66.58 per cent of the funds allocated.
3. Urban Bias in schemes: Most old age schemes are oriented to urban areas, as the old age homes are spread across urban areas. This is despite more than 65% population living in rural areas.
4. Poor palliative set up in hospitals: The ideals mentioned in schemes like National Programme for the Health Care of Elderly (NPHCE) are poorly implemented in the grassroots level. Poor infrastructure facilities in rural hospitals offer no respite to old age.
5. Not addressing the “ Feminisation” of old age: Most of the schemes are gender-neutral and this marginalises the increasing female old age population.
6. Bureaucratisation of schemes: Despite initiating reforms like Aadhaar enabled Bank accounts, DBT through JAM trinity, there are many cases of exclusion of old age due to complex procedures. For example, an instance of a woman in Odisha pulling her paralyzed mother in a cot to the bank to verify her account.
7. Generic medical facilities: Not addressing the rising Non Communicable diseases among old age population.
8. Rising Mental issues and social isolation are addressed in policy spheres. Most of the policy documents are silent on the aspect of utilising the rich experience of the old age population.
9. Randomisation of selections of scheme beneficiary: Most of the schemes like RVY are appropriated by the well to do category .
10. Lack of awareness of schemes: Most of the rural citizens are only aware of the IGNOAPS and not of any other rights like MWPSC Act and other benefits.
11. Schemes not tailored for suiting the illiterate and non-technocratic masses.
12. By the end of the 2050s, India’s beneficial demographic dividend will be closing and the rising old age population will be a reality. This category of citizens needs a holistic policy with visionary guidelines and sufficient funding to make our governance structure ready for it. States like Kerala, Tamilnadu which have good rural and primary health facilities are initiating coordinated Geriatric care which is a welcome initiative

There needs to be a re-modelling of existing schemes and laws. Old age welfare by social security should not be accorded a peripheral position in the governance sphere and a Centre-state continuous discussion forum is needed. Recent amendments to Maintenance and Welfare of Parents and Senior Citizens (Amendment) Bill, 2019 is a welcome initiative.